The “Russian Mission” in North America

This article presents a survey of the missionary work from the Russian Empire to North America. Beginning with the 1794 arrival of missionaries in “Russian America”, that is, Alaska, the missionary work began to include the USA (which included Alaska after 1867) and then Canada. This article covers only the first missionary work, and the early diocesan development. It does not consider events beyond the establishment of the Russian Orthodox Greek Catholic Church of North America.

This article is related to the category “RusM” of the Canadian Orthodox History Project.

The “Russian Mission” in North America

The term “Russian Mission” is not a formal term as such. Rather, it is a descriptive expression of a process that covered more than 200 years. The term also does not refer merely to a formal missionary project of the Russian Orthodox Church, but rather the natural development which accompanied the presence in North America of Russian Orthodox Christians who lived their lives in the manner that sprang from their Orthodox Christian Faith. At no time in this process was the presence of the Orthodox Christian Church considered to be temporary or provisional. Rather, once the citizens of the Russian Empire were present in North America (whether these citizens were ethnic Russians or persons of some other ethnicity), the Orthodox Church was also present in and through them. It is true that not every person amongst these early settlers was an Orthodox Christian (the Russian Empire was already absorbing some persons from Western Europe), but most of them were.

It is important to state from the beginning that the term “Russian Mission” refers primarily to the fact that this missionary activity took place within the Russian Empire during the 18th, 19th and 20th centuries. This empire was very much a poly-ethnic empire whose nobility were not necessarily ethnically Russian as such. Most spoke that language, but they spoke others as well. Although the mission itself was sent by imperial decree, the missionaries in Alaska (Russian America) and other parts of North America very often originated in other ethnical parts of the empire, such as what is now known as Ukraine.

Prehistory of the Russian Mission in exploration and trade

Discovery, exploration, 1648

In 1648, the Russian explorer Symeon Dezhnev sailed from the Arctic Ocean, around the Chukotka Peninsula (accompanied for at least part of the journey by Fedot Alekseyevich Popov), and he founded the post/fortress of Anadyr by the Anadyr River which empties into the Bering Sea, to the south of that peninsula. He had discovered the straits which separate Asia from North America. The Chukotka Peninsula is directly west from the Seward Peninsula of Alaska, about 88 km (55 mi) apart.

During the next several generations, Siberian entrepreneurs (mostly Russian Slavs, but others also) ventured across the straits to engage various indigenous North Americans in trade. Oral histories of such early permanent Russian settlements in what was then Russian America during this period persist amongst the indigenous Alaskan peoples into the present. In whatever capacity they arrived and remained (or sojourned), the Russian frontiersmen brought with them not only beads, blankets, pots and pans, but also their religious traditions as well. Orthodox Christian lay-persons brought the Orthodox Christian Faith to North America, and the way of life that goes with it ; they baptised the first converts (often their own native wives and Creole offspring), and they even constructed the first chapels. Clergy and official missionaries came much later.

In 1728, and again in 1741, Vitus Johanssen Bering and Aleksei Ilyich Chirikov mapped the Alaskan coast. One of the consequences was a very rapid increase in the fur trade in the region. During the 1741 expedition, the coast of Alaska was sighted on 15 July. The party investigated the area. Then, on 20 July, 1741, the first Orthodox Divine Liturgy in North America was served aboard the ship named Saint Peter. This was on the Feast-day of the Holy Prophet Elias (Elijah), at the future site of Novo-Arkhangelsk (Sitka), within sight of Mount Saint Elias.

Paul Garrett, in his book "Saint Innocent, Apostle to America", provides information from the notes of Saint Innocent (Veniaminov) :

 Of the first men to lead these fortune hunters ["promyshlenniki"] to occupy new, hitherto unknown places in America [...] 
 there were a few who also laid the foundations of Christianity among those with whom they settled.  Thus, for instance, the 
 Cossack Andrean Tolstykh, who around 1743 discovered the Andreanov Islands, was probably also the first to baptise their 
 inhabitants.  The seafarer Glotov, who in 1759 discovered the Fox Islands, first baptised the young son of a native Fox-Aleut 
 chieftain and took him along to Kamchatka.  There, this first born of the Unalaskan Church lived for several years learning 
 Russian (how to read and write it) before returning to his native land empowered as head "toion" (or chieftain) by the 
 governor of Kamchatka.   His example did much to spread Christianity.  On Kodiak the Christian Faith appeared only during the 
 time of G Shelikov, who established the present American Company and is the first founder of the American Church.  
 
 There are no details regarding the further spread of Christianity, except that as the number of Russian arrivals in the 
 Islands increased, thereby decreasing the mutual profits, the Aleuts themselves came to be divided up (their numbers 
 already having been decreased by more than half by the 'suppression') hence the number of hunters was lessened.  This caused 
 certain of the Russians to adopt other means of increasing their own quotas of workers and hunters – namely, bu convincing the 
 Aleuts to accept Holy Baptism, whereby they could make more adherents for themselves since baptised Aleuts honour their sponsors 
 as fathers and will serve them exclusively and diligently : no other Russian can lure away another's 'god-children'.  [...]
 
 Shelikov's primary intention in his many plans for the good of the American region was to spread Christianity and build Temples.  

Missionary activity of lay-persons

For 40 years, Russian traders and trappers (promyshlenniki) made regular trading expeditions to the Aleutian Islands Archipelago in search of valuable sea otter pelts. Such Siberian entrepreneurs were mostly unmarried men who married local women who provided their Siberian husbands with the same clothing, tools, and food that they would have given an indigenous spouse.

At the same time, it is clear that the workers who were marrying the local women and beginning families were also developing their families in the Orthodox way of life. These men certainly knew how to pray morning and evening prayers, and other services from the Book of the Hours ("Horologion"), and they did so as a matter of course on a daily basis. The most prominent example of this way of living was Osip Prianishnikov. As Nicholas Chapman wrote in a 2012 paper, he was  :

 a merchant from Tobolsk in Siberia who by 1791 was fluent in the Kodiak, Aleut and Chugach Yupik languages.  Combining this with 
 his knowledge of church services he was able to lead the native peoples in morning services, hours and evening services, even 
 before the arrival of the missionary fathers.  After their arrival he became their translator and continued to fulfil the 
 ministry of a reader.   

Such was the commitment of the Alaskans, that

 John Ledyard of Connecticut, the great early explorer, records in his 1778 visit to Alaska that 'the Russians assembled the Indians 
 in a very silent manner, and said prayers after the manner of the Greek Church. [...] I could not but observe with what particular 
 satisfaction the Indians performed their devoirs to God, through the medium of their little crucifixes, and with what pleasure 
 they went through the multitude of ceremonies attendant on that sort of worship'.  

This experience was far from exceptional. It was characteristic of the way of life of many of the best persons working in the Russian-American Company, and it was characteristic of the way many of those immigrating to North America from various Orthodox lands abroad were continuing to live their lives in North America.

By the time the British explorer Captain James Cook visited the Aleutian Islands in 1793, he could not distinguish the Slavs from the indigenous Alaskans. The Siberians had been completely acculturated into the material culture of the Aleuts.

The term “Alaska” came into use during this period of time. At first, it referred to the Alaska Peninsula which projects towards the Aleutian Island Archipelago from the southwest mainland. Later, the word referred to the whole landmass that projects westwards at the far northern extremity of North America. The term did not at that time include the southward extension (later “Southeast Alaska” or the “Alaska Panhandle”) that now includes Juneau and Sitka, nor the associated islands, which nevertheless were part of Russian America.

During this time, there were occasions of resistance on the part of the indigenous peoples, but for the most part, the Aleut, Russian, and Creole communities generally maintained a peaceful co-existence.

Shelikov-Golikov Company, 1783 ; Russian America Company, 1799

During the 1780s, the Russian trader Gregory Shelikov argued that sending annual trading expeditions to North America across the Bering Strait was unnecessarily expensive and also dangerous. He averred that it was time that permanent trading posts be established in Russian America. He opined that with the settling there of a few hundred Russians, it could be possible to make a systematic exploration of the coast (and interior), and exploit in a systematic manner both the sea otter furs and other resources all along the coastline. He was convinced that it could bring vast profits. He also suggested that there be a military presence in this commercial venture, since the indigenous peoples might not welcome such a colonial intrusion. He also envisioned a Russian and military influence southwards in the direction of the colonies of Spain in California, and perhaps amongst the Pacific Ocean islands.

Having received the permissions required, Gregory Shelikov set sail for Kodiak Island in the summer of 1784 in order to establish his Alaskan base. Although he denied it, all other accounts report that this move was regarded as an invasion, and it thus provoked hostility and armed resistance. Gregory Shelikov subdued the Kodiak islanders in a bloody encounter. He then returned to Saint Petersburg (the capital city of the Russian Empire), where he told about his conquest. He made a request to the imperial court for a monopoly over the ensuing fur trade. Having had his request granted, he then installed Alexander Andreievich Baranov as company manager, governor, and virtual dictator of the small Russian colony. In anticipation of this development, Gregory Shelikov had established the Shelikov-Golikov Trading Company in 1783 (also known as the “North-Eastern Trade and Fishing Company”, in co-operation with Ivan Illarionovich Golikov. Gregory Shelikov did not live to see his Russian-American Trading Company receive its monopoly, nor did he ever return to Alaska. Alexander Baranov, however, ruled both the colony and the company with an iron fist for 27 years.

Gregory Shelikov

Alexander Baranov

The Russian-America Mission

In order to convince the imperial court about the seriousness of his colonial scheme, Grigory Shelikov journeyed to the Valaam and Konevsky monasteries, located near the Russo-Finnish border, to recruit monastic volunteers for the new settlement in Russian-America. On 21 December, 1793, 1 archimandrite, 3 priestmonks, 1 deacon-monk, 1 unordained monk, along with several staff members, received the blessing, and they departed from Saint Petersburg. They arrived at Kodiak Island in North America on 24 September, 1794, They had travelled 11,748 km (7,300 mi) by foot, horse, wagon, boat and ship during 293 days. They had made their landfall at "Three Saints Bay", later called "Pavlov Bay". This was the future site of the settlement which was later named "Kodiak".

Archimandrite Joasaph (Bolotov) was the leader of the monks who were sent from Valaam. The others who accompanied him included : Hieromonk Makariy (Alexandrov) ; Hieromonk Juvenaly (Hovorukhin) ;  Hieromonk Athanasiy (Mikhailov) ;  Hierodeacon Nectariy (Panov) ; the Monk Herman (Popov) ; the novices Mikhail Feodorovich Hovorukhin  ; Cosma Alekseev Telepnev (according to other sources, Evseev) ; Dimitri Avdeev, and Nikita Semenov.

Arrival of the monks, 1794 Starets Herman

Upon arrival, the monks were distressed by the conditions in the colony. This had not to do with living conditions, bad weather or the customs of the indigenous peoples ; rather, it had to do with the violent and exploitative behaviour of their own Russian countrymen under the direction of Mr. Baranov. Within a few weeks, the leader of the mission, Archimandrite Joasaph (Bolotov) was sending vivid reports about abuse back to Mr. G Shelikov, with the hope that Mr. Shelikov would intervene. Despite this situation, the monks set about their pastoral and missionary work : they cared for the Russian workers, and they testified about their Faith to the indigenous peoples. They also began the construction of the Temple and of the monastic quarters. The monks then began to make missionary journeys round about Kodiak Island and also to the mainland of Russian America (Alaska). In the course of one such journey in 1796, the Hieromonk Juvenaly (Hovorukhin) was killed on the mainland of southwestern Alaska, and he became the first Orthodox Christian Martyr of North America. By this time, Father Juvenaly and Father Makary had already baptised more than 6,000 persons.

Having received no reply to his letters, Archimandrite Joasaph, the Priest-monk Makary, and the Deacon Stephen (Hovorukhin) returned to Russia (to Irkutsk) in 1798 to report first-hand about the situation. On their return to Alaska, their ship sank, and all aboard perished (1799). In retaliation for such continuing “interference”, Mr. Baranov placed the remaining monks under house arrest, and he forbade them any further contact with the native peoples (1800).

Russian-American Company, 1799

By this time, in 1799, the Russian-American Company had received its formal charter from Emperor Paul I, for the purpose of engaging in trade and other business ventures. Alexander Andreyevich Baranov was appointed to be the Chief Manager, or Governor, of the company's operations in Russian America. Under his leadership, many settlements were developed in various places. His management of the indigenous workers in particular was a constant source of disagreement with the monks who continued to defend the workers.

Despite the continuing oppression by the Russian-American Company, the indigenous Alaskans flocked to join the Orthodox Christian Church. This growth of the Alaskan mission can be explained in part by the heroic efforts of the missionaries in defending the Alaskans from Mr. Baranov and his enforcers, and by the sensitive approach the missionaries used towards the pre-Christian spirituality of the Aleuts. The Russian monks presented Orthodox Christianity not as the abolition, but as the fulfilment, of the ancient religious heritage of the indigenous Aleuts. Most persuasively, the personal example of the Monk Herman provided the local people with tangible evidence that the Gospel, when embraced with full dedication and commitment, produced God-like people.

Regardless, the pressure against the missionaries continued. After the catastrophic loss of life in 1799, there were fewer to do the work, and not all were able to remain. Ultimately, it was only the Monk Herman (Popov) who remained until the end of his life.

Kodiak harbour at the time of Saint Herman : Holy Resurrection Church at the left

Father Herman

In order to avoid harassment (and possible assassination at the hands of Mr. Baranov’s men), the Monk Herman left Kodiak sometime between 1808 and 1818, and he relocated to Spruce Island, 6 km (3 mi) to the north. He named his small hermitage “New Valaam” (in honour of his former monastery, from which earlier generations of Orthodox monks had set out to evangelise Karelian, Sami, and Finnish tribes-people, which they had done successfully). At New Valaam, Father Herman spent the rest of his life teaching the Aleutiiqs, nursing the sick, raising orphans, praying, and working miracles. Most importantly, through his kindness, compassion and personal holiness, Starets (Elder) Herman exemplified an ideal Christian life. He, the last surviving member of the original mission, reposed in Christ in 1837. His relics repose in Holy Resurrection Orthodox Church in Kodiak. The Aleutiiq people never forgot the humble monk nor his legacy of prayer and deeds. Largely because of this, despite all the pressure against the Orthodox Church in Alaska which came after 1867, the people remained faithful Orthodox Christians. Mostly at their insistence, Starets (Elder) Herman was glorified in 1970 by The Orthodox Church in America as the first Orthodox saint in North America.

Holy Resurrection Sobor, Kodiak Reliquary of Saint Herman

Renewal of the Russian American/Alaskan Mission, 1823 : Missionary Priest John Veniaminov

In 1823, even before the repose of Starets Herman, the Priest John Veniaminov was assigned to serve on Unalaska Island in the Aleutian Archipelago. This event may be considered to be the beginning of the renewal of the activity of the Alaskan mission of the Russian Orthodox Church.

Father John did not confine himself to Unalaska, and he developed the strength of the Orthodox Christian Faith on various islands as he made pastoral rounds. This included perilous journeys by sea in small leather-covered boats called “baidarkas”. This multitude of trips in this damp, cold climate is considered to be the cause of his later sufferings from arthritis. Likewise, his many trips over snow that brilliantly reflected the sun is considered to be the main cause of his future blindness.

Amongst the many accomplishments of Father John Veniaminov was the translation of Scripture and the liturgical services into the native dialects, for which he also devised a grammar and alphabet. He also built Temples in the villages that he served ; he was a maker of clocks and of furniture as well.

In 1829, Father John began to visit the Bering Sea coastal area of Russian-America, and he began the evangelising of the Yup'ik peoples there.

In 1834, he was transferred to Novo-Arkhangelsk (Sitka), where he and his family moved. This began his evangelical work with the Tlingit people, and he laid a foundation of the Orthodox Christian Faith in the hearts of the people which persisted far beyond a century later. In this place, immediately upon his arrival, Father John designed and constructed a new Temple which replaced the dilapidated original one. During the years of his service in Novo-Arkhangelsk, besides all his other activities, Father Innocent continued his work of translating the Holy Scriptures and liturgical texts into indigenous languages. He then used them in worship services, so that the people could understand the words both of the Holy Scriptures and of the liturgical services.

In 1836, Father John took passage on a Russian schooner travelling south. He intended to care for those stationed at the most distant Russian outpost in North America, Fort Ross, near San Francisco, California. Fort Ross had been established at the beginning of the 19th century, and the chapel within it was sanctified in 1812. From the first, the people associated with this fort and chapel were Orthodox Christians. In a similar manner to that in Alaska, the lay-workers shared their Orthodox Christian Faith with the indigenous people round about, and they baptised those who wished to embrace the Faith. A priest would complete the baptism whenever one could visit, and he would provide the Holy Mysteries to all the Faithful there.

While he was in Spanish California, Father John visited Franciscan missions along the coast. He spoke with the Spanish clergy and monks in Latin. Not by any means was every Russian Orthodox cleric so able in Latin as to be able to speak it. In a gesture of goodwill, he even built a small pipe organ for each of at least 2 of the Roman Catholic missions. Few, if any other, clergy would be so broadly capable (even now) as to be able to make clocks and pipe-organs, to build houses and Temples, and to speak and translate into many languages, as well as to be the father of a family and the pastor of a spiritual flock.

Fort Ross Settlement, 1841

Holy Trinity Chapel, Fort Ross

In 1840, as a consequence of negotiations with the USA government, all the California territory, including Fort Ross, was ceded by the Russian-American Company to the USA. Fort Ross became desolate.

In 1840, Father John, having become a widower, was elected and ordained to the Holy Episcopate, before which he had been tonsured to be a monk and given the name Innocent. This all occurred in Saint Petersburg.

Priest Jacob Netsvetov, 1828

In 1828, Father Jacob Netsvetov, a Creole of Aleut and Russian ancestry and graduate of the Irkutsk Seminary, was ordained to the Holy Priesthood. This was done so that he could assist Father John Veniaminov in the evangelical work that was in progress on the Aleutian Islands. The focus of his labours at that time was on Atka Island.

Priest Jacob Netsvetov

The Atka “parish” comprised a territory stretching for nearly 3,220 km (2,000 mi) and included the Amchitka, Attu, Cooper, Bering and Kuril Islands. As did Father John Veniaminov, Father Jacob visited the people, and provided them with spiritual food. He built buildings and chapels and Temples, and he translated Scriptural and liturgical texts. He and Father John were in regular correspondence about their pastoral and translation work. When he had completed his first 6 months of pastoral service (at the end of 1829), Father Jacob recorded that he had baptised 16 persons, chrismated 442 persons, married 53 couples, and buried 8 persons. Being bi-lingual and bi-cultural, Father Jacob was uniquely able to care for the souls of his community. Father Jacob particularly concerned himself with providing education to children.

After he was widowed in 1837, Father Jacob continued his pastoral labours despite his desire to become a monk. Then, after Father John Veniaminov had been ordained to be the bishop of the region, the now Bishop Innocent (Veniaminov) assigned Father Jacob Netsvetov to begin missionary work in the Yukon River delta. Making his headquarters at Ikogmiut, a village today called “Russian Mission”, Father Jacob laboured for nearly 20 years amongst the Yup’ik people.

At the invitation of Athabascan Indian tribes upstream, he preached to, converted, and baptised hundreds in the Innoko River in 1852, thereby narrowly averting a tribal war. Father Jakob described this accomplishment in his personal diaries :

 What a joy to see so many joined to the Church of Christ ; former enemies, now living together in peaceful coexistence. 

Without the benefit of modern technology, without the protection or physical support of military or legal authorities, and hundreds of kilometres from the nearest European outpost, Father Jacob preached the Good News (the Gospel, and he brought salvation in Christ to thousands of Alaskans during his decades of service.

Until 1861, in addition to all their other labours, Father Jacob along with Constantine Lukin saw to the vaccination of the indigenous peoples of the Yukon River region against smallpox. Their main annual range of travel was from Saint Michael to Shageluk.

In 1862, Father Jacob suffered from a slander. In order to answer to the bishop, he had to travel to Sitka to be heard by the bishop. The matter was resolved in a short time thereafter, but he reposed in Christ in Sitka in 1864.

Bishop Innocent (Veniaminov)

In 1840, Archimandrite Innocent (Veniaminov) was ordained to the Holy Episcopate, and he was assigned to serve as the Bishop of Kamchatka and the Kuril Islands in Russia, and the Aleutian Islands in Russian America.

Bishop Innocent (Veniaminov) of Alaska

In September, 1841, Bishop Innocent returned to Novo-Arkhangelsk (New-Archangel, now Sitka), which was now his episcopal see. He spent the next decade in the administration of his see, as well as in making several long missionary journeys to its remote areas. On these journeys, in addition to providing spiritual nutrition, Bishop Innocent also gave vaccinations against some diseases (particularly smallpox) to as many people as possible.

The Church continued to grow amongst the indigenous Alaskans, and Bishop Innocent also visited California and the Orthodox community at Fort Ross, north of San Francisco.

In 1844, Bishop Innocent laid the foundation stone for the new cathedral of Saint Michael in Sitka. He had designed this building, and he participated in the construction.

On 20 November, 1848, the Cathedral of Saint Michael was sanctified. The Russian-American Company had funded the project ; the bells were forged in Alaska, and the clock fixed in the bell-house was made by Bishop Innocent himself.

The bishop's house in Sitka (21st century) Saint Michael's Cathedral

In 1850, Bishop Innocent was elevated to the dignity of archbishop.

In 1852, the Yakut area (Yakutia) was included in the Kamchatka, Kuril and Aleutians Diocese. This increased the population of the diocese to more than 200,000 Orthodox Christian believers.

In 1853, the centre of the diocese was moved to Yakutsk, and Archbishop Innocent therefore moved there.

Old Tlingit village at Sitka ; Original Tlingit Temple at Stika (sketches by Bishop Varlaam (Novakshonoff))

About the development of San Francisco

At about this time, gold deposits were discovered in California, and many people began to move into the San Francisco area. Russians, Greeks and Serbs were amongst such people, and they began to be cared for from the late 1850s by an Agent of the Russian Government and by the clergy who served as chaplains on ships of the Imperial Russian Navy which began to stop in the San Francisco harbour. As Archimandrite Sebastian (Dabovich) wrote (in 1898 in "The American Orthodox Messenger") :

 In the 1850s, the first Russian Government Agent, Kostromitinov also lived here.  In 1859 for the first time since 
 the transfer of Fort Ross, a Russian Navy ship appeared in San Francisco Bay. On this ship arrived the Hieromonk Kirill, 
 who was enlisted in the Second Amur Squadron.  He came on shore and the same year baptized several Russian and Serb 
 children in Mr. Kostromitinov's apartment on Rincon Hill in San Francisco.  This was, it seems, the first divine service 
 for the community in California since the closure of the chapel at Fort Ross.  Then in January of 1862, another Russian Navy 
 ship, the Kalevala, arrived offshore at San Francisco.  On it was a Hieromonk from the Konev Nativity Monastery, Father Vitaly. 
 He also performed the sacraments of Baptism and Chrismation in San Francisco.  In 1863, at the time of the American Civil War, 
 six Russian Navy ships, under the command of Rear Admiral Popov, were stationed in San Francisco Bay for an entire year.  
 Among these ships there were the corvettes Bogatyr, Riga, and Kalevala. (They came to protect the interests of the Russian Federal 
 Government.) On the flagship Bogatyr, there was a Hieromonk from the Tikhvin 1st class Monastery, Father Kirill.  In 1863 he 
 baptised several children in San Francisco, including the writer of this notebook. [...]
 
 On Pascha night in 1864, at the invitation of the Admiral, Divine Liturgy on board the ship was attended, along with 
 Mr. Kostromitinov, by the Serbs Nicholas Dabovich, Peter Radovich and Andrew Chelovich.  It is not known whose idea it was 
 to establish the Orthodox Society in San Francisco, but it may be surmised that the initiative was taken by Admiral Popov, 
 because he was present at the first meeting of the society in one of the halls of the city.  Before the opening of the meeting, 
 a Molieben with the blessing of water was served.  Father Kirill, a middle-aged man with a pleasant appearance, conducted the 
 service.  He was wearing a Cross awarded by the Synod, an indication of his many merits.  
 
 Toward the end of 1864 the newly established Orthodox society in San Francisco had $424.38 in a S.F. Savings Union Bank savings 
 account.  The following were the first members of this society: Nicholas Dabovich, Peter Radovich, George Lazarevich, 
 Nicholas Gregovich, Bogdan Matkovich, Andrew Chelovich, Peter Bokanovich, Peter Zenovich, John Constantine, Michael Cheriasis, 
 Luka Balich, Elias Vuovich, Gabriel Kustudio, Constantine Milinovich, and John Hertso (a Roman Catholic Slav). Each of these 
 members made a contribution of $20.00 in gold.  
 
 Eventually the Russian ships weighed their anchors.  And there were no more priests here.  It would seem that, left without 
 a church or a priest, this Orthodox community should have disappeared from the face of the earth, especially in the rush for gold, 
 for wealth.  Through the mercy of God, however, this did not happen.  The Orthodox — Serbs, Greeks, and Russians — lived at that 
 time in concord, and supported each other in a brotherly manner.  On all major feasts, they gathered together with those who had 
 families, and sang religious and folk songs.  In those days the wax candle did not burn down and the bread loaf did not run out 
 in families where they celebrated 'Krestno Ime' (the Serbian custom of celebrating a family's Nameday.  Every Serbian family and 
 generation commemorates the acceptance of a Christian name instead of a pagan one.)  
 
 The modest Society had already established correspondence with the 'old country' and contemplated the acquisition of a 'pope' 
 [priest in Serbian].  Such was the situation until 1867 when, finally, and at no one's invitation, there appeared a certain 
 Honcharenko, who pretended to be an Orthodox priest. (Detailed information about him, based on the correspondence of Metropolitan 
 Philaret [Drozdov, now Saint Philaret of Moscow] and the Ober Procurator, may be found in 'Moskovskiye Vedomosti' ["Moscow News"].) 
 
 At that time the Russian Consul in San Francisco was Martin Klinkovstrem, a Russian Finn, a pious man and a strict observer of his 
 duties.  He, together with the majority of the Orthodox population of San Francisco, suspected Hontcharenko of fraud.  They began 
 to make inquiries, and indeed it was discovered that Hontcharenko was an imposter.  This Agapius Hontcharenko was a tonsured monk 
 from the Kiev Caves Lavra.  Elevated to the rank of a hierodeacon [monk-deacon], he was assigned to the [Russian] embassy chapel 
 in Athens.  Eventually he was fired from that job for political crimes ; but he did not return to Russia as he had been ordered.  
 He lived subsequently in London and finally appeared in San Francisco, married no less.  Here he managed to baptise the son of 
 a Serb Lazarevich before his imposture was discovered.  Hontcharenko's brother now lives on Mount Athos.  The former monk in charge 
 of the Alexander Nevsky Lavra refectory, Father Martirius, served with him in Athens.  Hegoumen George [Chudnovsky], who later 
 served in the Alaskan Diocese, knew Honcharenko from Kiev. 
 
 The arrival of Hontcharenko in San Francisco induced the local Society to consider more seriously their spiritual state.  Under the 
 leadership of Consul Klinkovstrem, the Society finally became completely organised.  Its Bylaws were drawn up in a true churchly 
 spirit, and then in December of 1867 the legal existence of the society was ratified at City Hall.  Among the new members were the 
 following : John Franetta, Carl Baum, Archimandritov, Elias Chelovich, Sabbas Martinovich, A Chausov, George Fisher, Lasar Jovovich, 
 and Luke Jankovich.  The Russian plenipotentiary in the transfer of Alaska to the Federal Government, Alexis Peschurov, signed up as 
 a member of the Society and paid his dues for several months in advance.  
 
 At that time money was cheap in California.  The country was not yet overpopulated.  Monopolies were not fully established.  Compensation 
 for labour was generous.  There were no cheap Italian, or especially Chinese, labourers.  The Society members, with few exceptions, were 
 generous in their support of the common cause.  The Director of the Russian colonies in America, Prince Maksutov, when he passed through 
 San Francisco on his way to Russia, consoled the brethren with a promise of petitioning the Russian bishop in Sitka to send them a parish 
 priest.  At the same time he donated two hundred dollars to the Society.  
 
 And indeed, in the following year of 1868, the Priest Nicholas Kovrigin and the Reader Basil Shishkin arrived in San Francisco from Sitka. 
 Liturgy was celebrated in the house of the Serb Peter Sekulovich at 3241 Mission Street, near 28th Street.  At that time this was 
 considered to be outside of town.  I remember that first service, to which I went with my mother.  We had to walk a long way along 
 unpaved streets.  Furthermore we were mercilessly drenched by rain.  At last we reached a small house ; we crossed over a ditch (or 
 temporarily excavated gutter) on a plank and entered the church.  The 'church' was set up in a divided room.  At the end opposite the 
 entrance the Holy Antimension lay on a covered table.  A little table in a corner served as the table of oblation.  I remember 
 two icons on the walls : the Saviour and the Mother of God.  There were approximately twenty communicants at that Liturgy.  When it 
 was time to approach the Cup of Salvation, my older brother followed my father and I wanted to follow my mother.  But I was held back 
 and told that 'no little ones are allowed there'.  This circumstance requires an explanation.  Western Serbs, e.g. Dalmatian and others, 
 do not allow their small children to receive communion of the Holy Gifts.  The clergy in some places to this day have been unable to 
 restore the Orthodox custom of communion of children.  
 
 That same summer, the Priest N Kovrigin returned to Sitka, but at the beginning of the following year, 1869, he came back to us with 
 his whole family - to remain here as a permanent priest.  The parishioners installed him in a spacious house with excellent new furniture 
 at 516 Greenwich Street.  In this house's parlour there was a temporary church without an iconostasis.  I remember this house chapel 
 for it was here that I made my first confession and communion.  At divine services Consul Klinkovstrem's three adult daughters sang 
 harmoniously.  They, like their mother, were Orthodox.  Joachim Chuda, a Serb, served as a reader and altar server ; parishioners paid 
 him $50 a month.  Besides providing the monthly rent for the priest's apartment and the space for the church, the parishioners also 
 maintained the priest by their own means.  The Orthodox community in San Francisco lived thus until the summer of 1871.  In that year 
 the first Bishop of the Aleutian-Alaskan Diocese relocated here with his staff from Sitka.  And so San Francisco became the cathedral 
 city of the Diocese of the Aleutian Islands and Alaska.  

In 1867, during the same year in which Russian America was sold to the USA, Archbishop Innocent (Veniaminov) was chosen to become the Metropolitan of Moscow and Russia.

Immediately upon arriving in Sitka, the American armed forces robbed and damaged the Cathedral of Saint Michael, and they did so to the town as well.

In modern contrast to this behaviour, the American Library of Congress article "In the Beginning was the Word : the Russian Church and Native Alaskan Cultures", in the section about "Native Education" in Russian America describes Vladyka Innocent thus :

 Undoubtedly the greatest educator in Russian America was Father Ioann Veniaminov, later Bishop Innokentii, who devised 
 an alphabet for the Aleut language, expanded the educational system, and insisted that priests learn Native languages 
 and customs.  In 1841, he established the ecclesiastical seminary at Novoarkhangelsk (Sitka), which included coursework 
 in Latin, trigonometry, navigation, medicine, and six years of Native languages.  Local parish schools offered reading, 
 writing, and arithmetic, Biblical history, penmanship, music, and, at times, as many as four languages simultaneously : 
 Russian, Old Church Slavonic, English, and a Native language.  Indeed, the stories of the many remarkable graduates 
 of the Church system, mostly Creoles like the priest Iakov Netsvetov and the explorer-soldier Alexander Kashevarov, 
 are among the most moving in the history of Russian America.

Bishop Peter (Ekaterinovsky), 1859

Bishop Innocent (Veniaminov) was succeeded by Bishop Peter (Ekaterinovsky) in 1859, in the Novo-Arkhangelsk Vicariate in North America.

Bishop Peter (Ekaterinovsky)

Bishop Peter had already served as a missionary in the region of Alaska and Russian-America, and he continued this work as an archpastor until November, 1866, when he was transferred to Yakutsk, in the Far East of the Russian Empire.

By this time also, the Russian-American Company had been closed in 1863, and this brought about serious financial difficulties for the missionary work in Russian America. Until then, this company had contributed significantly to the support of the mission in Sitka and elsewhere.

During his time of service, Vladyka Peter expanded missionary activity along the Alaskan coast as far north as the Bering Strait. He established new schools in Kodiak and in Unalaska.

Bishop Peter also initiated investigations into the life and legacy of the monk Herman (Popov) of Alaska.

Bishop Paul (Popov), 1867

Bishop Paul (Popov) succeeded Bishop Peter as the Bishop of Novo-Archangelsk in 1867, and he served there until 1870.

Bishop Paul (Popov)

Vladyka Paul (Popov) had already served for 6 years as Vicar-Bishop of Yakutsk in the Kamchatka Diocese before he was transferred to Novo-Archangelsk. He arrived during the year of the sale of Alaska to the USA, and he had to help the rational sheep of his territorial flock to endure the violence that accompanied the occupation of Novo-Archangelsk (now re-named Sitka) and the rest of Alaska upon the arrival of the military forces of the USA. Life became perilous.

The change in government made fundamental societal changes. No longer was the Orthodox Christian Church in Alaska protected by the state, as it had been within the Russian Empire. Now, it was forcibly transformed into being a Russian Church mission on foreign (American) territory. Further, it now became both oppressed and persecuted in the new society.

Bishop Paul was in Alaska only for the beginning of what may be called a "decade of terror" under the military occupation of Sitka. During the period 1867-1877, and especially in Sitka, raping, pillaging and looting were commonplace. At the time of the change of government, most of the ethnic Russians returned to the Russian Empire. Many of the indigenous people fled to the interior.

In 1877, and the departure of the army, Sitka had been reduced to a population of only 20 families (5 of them being Russian). With the multitude of changes that this transition caused, the years of Bishop Paul's leadership were marked by great difficulties.

Nevertheless, it was during this period that Bishop Paul (Popov) initiated a move that prepared for the transfer of the diocesan see to San Francisco, which would come later. It is very likely that he had taken these steps as a consequence of the sale of Alaska to the USA and of the wholesale destruction of life in Sitka which followed. Soon after his arrival, Vladyka Paul assigned the Priest Nikolai Kovrigin to San Francisco in order to serve the spiritual needs of the Slavic population in the San Francisco area. Father Nikolai arrived in San Francisco in late March, 1868. He served his first Divine Liturgy on Pascha in a residence on Mission Street. He noted in his report to Bishop Paul that the Gospel had been read in 4 languages : (Greek, Slavonic, English, and Russian) at the Paschal services. He also reported that the next day, he had served the Divine Liturgy in Greek for the Greek-speakers living in the city. Father Nikolai also advised that he had held services in Sacramento. Father Nikolai's last Divine Liturgy in San Francisco before returning to Alaska was on Sunday, 19 May, 1868. He was then assigned to serve the new community in San Francisco, and he was their first priest.

On 10 June, 1870, Bishop Paul was transferred and assigned to be the ruling bishop of the Diocese of Yenisei and Krasnoyar. In the Russian Empire, Krasnoyar was one of the large cities of Siberia. Its diocesan territory was along the Yenisei River of Siberia, and the diocese itself had recently been established from the former Tomsk-Yenisei diocese.

When he departed from Alaska, he travelled across the USA on his way to Russia, because he had to report to the Most Holy Synod in Saint Petersburg before travelling to his next assignment. Just as he was leaving Alaska, he met his successor, Bishop John (Mitropolsky), who had arrived the day before.

While Bishop Paul was in New York City, on 12 November, 1870, he sanctified the first Orthodox Temple there. This was Holy Trinity Greco-Russian Church, which had been organised by Father Nicholas Bjerring.

On 13 March, 1873, Bishop Paul was again transferred, and he was assigned to be the ruling hierarch of the Diocese of Kamchatka, the Kurile Islands, and Blagoveshchensk. Of course, this diocese is historically related to the diocese he had served in Alaska. He served there until his repose in 1877.

The sale of Alaska to the USA, 1867

The sale of Russian-America (Alaska) to the USA was the result of a decade-long political and economic discussion within the Russian Empire, and then between that empire, the British Empire, and the United States.

Grand Duke Konstantin Nikolayevich, a younger brother of the Tsar, Alexander II, began to press for the handover of Russian America to the United States in 1857. In a memorandum to Foreign Minister Alexander Gorchakov, he stated that :

 We must not deceive ourselves and must foresee that the United States, aiming constantly to round out their possessions 
 and desiring to dominate undividedly the whole of North America will take the afore-mentioned colonies from us and we 
 shall not be able to regain them. 

He made these comments during the year following the end of the disastrous Crimean War which had left the Russian Empire in financial straits.

Included in the consideration was the fact that the formerly lucrative supply of sea-otter furs had been so exploited as to bring the otter population nearly to extinction. The British government expressed disinterest in purchasing the territory since the existing territories of Canada were considered to be already too large to manage well. The USA government eventually expressed its interest. The rôle of the Russian Orthodox Church and her Faithful were evidently not a part of the considerations of either the Russian Imperial government or the American government.

When the transfer to American sovereignty took place in 1867, most ethnic Russians, including the great majority of Orthodox priests, were recalled or returned to Russia itself. This left the 12,000 indigenous Orthodox Christians, 9 Orthodox Christian parishes, 35 chapels, 17 schools, and 3 orphanages to manage on their own. It took more than a century for Alaska to begin to recover from this dangerous loss. Then, when in 1872, the diocesan see was transferred from Sitka to San Francisco, the bishop was able to supervise the mission only from afar. Over the next 100 years, even though there were bishops resident in the territory, the Alaskan mission received only sporadic assistance from the Orthodox Faithful in the “lower 48”.

Furthermore, from the perspective of the new American civil authorities, the Orthodox Christian mission was treated as an unwelcome relic of Alaska's Russian past. In open co-operation with aggressively proselytising Protestant missionary groups, the new territorial government launched a campaign to “Americanise” the indigenous peoples who were Orthodox Christians. Orthodox prayers, icons, and indigenous languages were forbidden in the new American schools, and they were denounced from the new Protestant pulpits. Repeated protests by the Orthodox bishop to the American President, Congress, and military occupation authorities (who were hostile and brutal) were ignored.

Despite the oppression and abuse, the Orthodox Christian mission in Alaska continued to grow, largely because of the efforts of the indigenous leaders. Even though the missionary diocese of Alaska never had more than 15 priests, scores of new parishes and chapels, as well as schools and orphanages, were constructed. Lay leaders continued to conduct services, to preach, and to teach, even in the absence of clergy. The Orthodox Church in Alaska was able to survive because, from its very beginning, it was envisioned (in the best tradition of Orthodox missionary spirituality) as an indigenous Church, not as a “diaspora”. Thus, the people had long ago learnt how to gather together in their Temples on Sundays, Holy Days, and other days, and to worship the Lord together by using the Horologion (Book of the Hours). The Service of the Typical Psalms (“Obednitsa”) substituted in the absence of the Divine Liturgy (which required a priest to serve).

An example of the establishment of the USA military presence in Alaska is the construction of Fort Wrangell in 1868. Situated nearer the mainland, it was about 120 mi southwest from Sitka and 105 mi north of Ketchikan (an ancient Tlingit settlement, established by Americans only in 1885). The fort replaced the previous Russian-American Company and Hudson Bay Company (British) stockades.

Tlingit Village at Wrangel, 1868 ; Old Fort Wrangle and the Tlingit Village (sketch by Bishop Varlaam (Novakshonoff))

The North American Diocese, 1870

One of the early consequences of the sale of Alaska to the USA was the change of status of the diocese itself. No longer could it or would it be a vicariate of a Russian diocese. It necessarily had to become an autonomous diocese headquartered in San Francisco. These perceptions were a consequence of a serious deliberation by the Most Holy Synod of the Russian Orthodox Church about the state of affairs for the Russian Orthodox communities in North America after the sale. It took 2 years of careful study and deliberation to reach this decision. Amongst other matters, the bishops had to take into consideration the political concern of the imperial government. This was that the formal establishment of a Russian Orthodox Diocese subordinated to the Russian Holy Synod on American territory could be considered to be an act of interference by Russia in the internal matters of America. The imperial government had no wish to interfere, nor to be perceived as doing so. Therefore, the status of a distinct diocese in North America was considered to be the only alternative at the time, and it was this alone that the imperial government would accept.

When the North American Diocese was formed in 1870 (through a decision of the Most Holy Synod), its first title was “The Aleutian Islands and Alaska”, and the see city was Novo-Arkhangelsk. This diocese with its administration was formed while taking into consideration the distinct characteristics of the society of the USA.

However, on 29 June, 1872, the first bishop of this diocese, Bishop John (Mitropolsky), moved the see-city south to San Francisco, California. The cathedral was established first at the Temple of Saint Alexander Nevsky at 915, Jackson Street, where Vladyka John also established his residence.

All this occurred, in part, because the population of Sitka had been so drastically reduced after the arrival of the new USA government, its military, and its new system of administration. This new administration was very unfavourable not only towards the memory of the Russian presence in Alaska, but also towards the Russian Orthodox Church, and it promoted Protestant activities in this newly-acquired territory in order to suppress the practice of the Orthodox Christian Faith amongst the indigenous peoples. The methods were brutal, but they were largely unsuccessful.

Nevertheless, in the “lower 48” as the contiguous states have been called, there had begun a large immigration of Orthodox Christians from Eastern Europe and from the Eastern Mediterranean, which was demanding pastoral attention. Even though the centre of administration of the North American diocese moved, Vicar-Bishops continued to be assigned to care for the Alaskans.

Bishop John (Mitropolsky), 1870

In 1870, Bishop Paul (Popov) was succeeded in Alaska by Bishop John (Mitropolsky).

On 5 July, 1870, the Archimandrite Ioann (Mitropolsky) was ordained to the Holy Episcopate. Bishop John (Mitropolsky) was then assigned to be the first ruling hierarch of the newly formed Diocese of Novo-Arkhangelsk and the Aleutian Islands. Its see city was Novo-Arkhangelsk (Sitka).

Bishop John (Mitropolsky)

When he had arrived in North America, Bishop John (Ioann) was accompanied by his brother, Nicholas Egorevich Mitropolsky. Nicholas Egorevich and his wife later had a son, Nicholas Nikolaievich Mitropolsky, and both father and son later served the Orthodox Church in North America as priests.

By the time of his arrival in Sitka, Bishop John found it to be already in the process of destruction and depopulation. In some ways, the situation was not unlike what would follow much later both in Russia and in North America, after the Russian Revolution of 1917. He therefore soon presented a request to the Most Holy Synod of the Church of Russia to make the move, very likely with the understanding that the Faithful in all the parts of Alaska would be able to be cared for from a stronger and more financially viable population centre, such as San Francisco, California. This city, along with other mainland USA centres, had already begun to experience immigration of Orthodox Christians from Eastern European and Mediterranean countries.

Because of the deterioration of the overall situation of the Church in Alaska, Bishop John faced many difficulties in that territory, and not many of his attempts to further the missionary work there were fruitful.

In Belkovsky, a village on the far western tip of the Alaska Peninsula, Bishop John blessed the construction of a new chapel. Then, in 1875, it was separated from the Unalaksa parish, and it became known as the Temple of the Holy Resurrection, Belkovsky.

In Sitka, where besides Saint Michael's Cathedral, there was also the Holy Trinity Temple, Bishop John became aware quickly that there was no longer a sufficient population either of Russians or of Tlingits to support the existence of this Temple. Therefore, in 1872, he directed that this building be dismantled (it could not be left abandoned, since this would inevitably bring the vandalisation and profanation of a holy place).

In 1871, Bishop John transferred both the diocesan administration and the missionary school to San Francisco. There, up to 16 pupils received instruction. The bishop taught the Holy Scriptures and Slavonic Language. Until 1873, there was also a Saturday school for the children of parishioners.

In 1872, he received approval of the move of the diocesan administration, mission school, and of the episcopal see from Sitka to San Francisco.

In 1872, with the move of the see to San Francisco, Bishop John initiated the construction of the Saint Alexander Nevsky Cathedral at 915, Jackson Street.

Saint Alexander Nevsky Cathedral, 1872

In 1873, Bishop John obtained permission for the construction of a new Temple of the Holy Resurrection in Kodiak, Alaska. The previous building had become decrepit because of age and weather, and it had to be replaced.

In 1874, Bishop John completed the move of the Temple of Saint Alexander to a larger building on Pierce Street in San Francisco. This structure was designed to accommodate not only the cathedral Temple, but also the bishop's residence. These were the ancestors of the Holy Trinity Cathedral which would be established later.

In 1874, the new staff of the cathedral clergy was approved. The organisation, "Greek, Russian, Slavonian Orthodox Eastern Church and Benevolent Society" (Greek-Russian-Slavic Orthodox Eastern Church and charity) bought the land for the cemetery, which was then sanctified.

There was a lack of clergy ; and in 1875, 4 singers of the Slavic choir who arrived in San Francisco, who had studied in theological seminaries, were ordained by Bishop John to the Holy Priesthood. The English language began to be introduced into worship services.

In 1875, a Gospel Book was presented by the Ambassador of the Russian Empire to the USA to Bishops University in Lennoxville, Sherbrooke, Québec. This Gospel Book is in the archives of that university, and has occasionally been on display. The inscription, dated 1875, is written by Tsar Alexander II. The emperor expressed his gratitude for the hospitality that was given through the use of the university chapel that had been provided to the priest for services for Syrian immigrants from the Ottoman Empire who settled in that region. The precise length of this service to the recently-arrived Syrians, who the Syrians were, and what became of them is unknown ; but the presentation of the Gospel Book suggests that 1875 marked approximately the conclusion of the series of services provided for them from the USA. This arrangement would necessarily have been made with the knowledge and blessing of Bishop John. Any arrival of Syrians in Canada at such an early date implies that they may have fled the Druze-Maronite clashes in the Syrian region of the Ottoman Empire during the previous decade. That the immigrants of that period are perhaps now impossible to find suggests that either they simply moved elsewhere in Canada and became assimilated into Canadian society at that time, or they moved to another country. For instance, at that time, South America was an appealing destination for many Syrian emigrants.

Having studied church history in his academy days, Bishop John had developed a concept for his missionary work in North America that would convey the truths of Orthodox Christianity to the heterodox in North America. With his fluency in the English language he used a scholarly approach to argue the truths of Orthodoxy and to defend them. He was able to debate the heterodox in the press, and his accomplishments are recorded in his book, "About the History of Sects in America". He gave attention in general to the main directions of American Protestantism, and he gave an overview of Methodists, Presbyterians and Episcopalians. He also published 3 sermons in English, and he translated into English and printed the “Akathist to the Saviour”.

Bishop John maintained a positive overall disposition that he demonstrated towards the work of bringing the Orthodox Christian Faith to North Americans. However, he outlined the challenges that faced any missionary in America then (and now), in a letter to his homeland in 1871 :

 They attend temples of all confessions equally, if only the organ is good, the singing is good or the sermon 
 is good.  The church service is a spectacle for them, and they are calculating where it is more pleasant for 
 them to spend half an hour or an hour of their free time.  

About the responsibility of the Bishop of San Francisco, Professor S Kazansky of the Moscow Theological Academy in 1914 reported that when Bishop John had been proposed to become the Bishop of San Francisco, Bishop John had commented that :

 The post of bishop in San Francisco is more diplomatic than pastoral, and the representative of our Church there 
 should possess, if not scholarship, then secular dexterity and influence [...].

He had considered himself to be unworthy of the responsibility, but when he embraced it, he fulfilled both the challenging pastoral and diplomatic aspects of his office well.

On 12 April, 1877, the time of service of Bishop John (Mitropolsky) in North America came to an end when he was transferred and assigned to the staff of the office of the Most Holy Synod in Moscow, Russia.

About this period, Archimandrite Sebastian (Dabovich) wrote :

 In the summer of 1870, San Francisco parishioners were granted the joyous opportunity of seeing two Orthodox bishops.  As far as I 
 can remember, it happened in September, when the newly-ordained Bishop John (Mitropolsky) arrived from Europe via New York.  At the 
 same time, the Right Reverend Paul, the last Vicar Bishop of New Archangel in the far-flung Amur Diocese, was leaving America for 
 Siberia from San Francisco.  
 
 In 1871, the Alaskan Spiritual Consistory, which is still in existence, was established in San Francisco.  At the same time the bishop's 
 school was transferred here from Sitka.  In that year, the Russian Temple in San Francisco occupied a more suitable space than before, 
 at 915 Jackson Street.  The bishop took up residence in the same house.  
 
 From the time of the arrival of the Right Reverend John, priests, after his example, began to proclaim the word of truth to the flock 
 in San Francisco.  A Saturday school for the children of parishioners was opened where they were taught the Catechism and the Russian 
 language.  Here, under this bishop served : Archpriest Paul Kedrolivansky, as Reader and later Deacon and Priest ; Nicholas Mitropolsky 
 (Vladyka's brother) ; Deacon Michael Netzvetov ; Deacon Basil Shishkin ; Reader Moses Salamatov ; Priest N Kovrigin ; Deacon M Salamatov ; 
 Deacon Basil Kashevarov and Reader Peter Kashevarov.  Michael Vladimirov was choir director and singing teacher.  He also taught 
 mathematics at the school.  Besides the clergymen that taught at the school, Vladyka himself also had seven classes a week, in Holy 
 Scripture and the Slavonic language.  A native Greek, Dimitrios Frankiades, from the University of Athens, was teacher of the Greek and 
 English languages.  
 
 At the time of the Right Reverend John, as many as sixteen pupils studied at the bishop's school in San Francisco.  Of that number, five 
 are now serving in various positions in the local diocese.  The Right Reverend John loved his school, one might say, with a singular love.
 
 The Temple on Jackson Street was small : it was located in two rooms with sliding doors.  It was named for the Holy Orthodox Prince 
 Alexander Nevsky.  The iconostasis for this church and the majority of vessels, vestments, liturgical books and other items 
 had been donated by His Imperial Highness, the Grand Duke Constantine Nikolaevich, from one of the ships of the Russian Navy.  What was yet 
 lacking for hierarchical services, was supplied by the reserves of St. Michael the Archangel Cathedral in Sitka.  In 1873 the bishop's 
 church with all its various institutions was moved to another part of town, to the west, and namely to the huge house of Mr. Casebolt on 
 Pierce Street between Vallejo and Green Streets (Green street was not yet laid out then), near the military base and Fort Presidio.  
 Members of the clergy lived, as usual, in private apartments, with the exception of the school superintendent, who lived in the bishop's 
 house.  Although it was inconvenient and far for the parishioners to travel to services, they nevertheless attended, approximately 40 people 
 in number every Sunday.  At that time the Saturday school for parishioners' children was discontinued.  But the location was healthy and 
 peaceful, and quite suitable for the diocesan school.  
 
 In 1874, the authorities established a new personnel list of San Francisco Cathedral Clergy, i.e. 1 Cathedral Dean with a salary of 
 2,600 rubles plus 600 rubles living expenses, 1 Priest with a salary of 2,300 rubles plus 500 rubles living expenses, 1 Deacon with a salary 
 of 1,200 rubles plus 400 rubles living expenses, 2 Subdeacons with a salary of 1000 rubles each a year plus 300 rubles living expenses and 
 2 Readers with a salary of 800 rubles each a year plus 300 rubles living expenses.  In the same year of 1874, the "Greek, Russian, Slavonian 
 Orthodox Eastern Church and Benevolent Society" purchased land to be used as a cemetery, which was then consecrated by Archpriest P Kedrolivansky.
 This cemetery was adjacent to the Odd Fellows Cemetery, well known in the city.  With the arrival in San Francisco of cathedral clergy, the 
 upkeep of the church and priest by the Society was discontinued, and the Society itself began to tend towards disintegration.  
 
 In 1875, five singers of the famous Slavonic Choir arrived in San Francisco.  Since they were all seminary trained, they were received 
 into the clergy.  The Bishop was very gladdened by their arrival, because he was in great need of people.  Priest Nikolai  Mitropolsky 
 left for a position in Sitka in 1874.  In that same year , Deacon V Shishkin was appointed a priest for Alaska.  In 1875, Deacon M Salamatov 
 received a similar appointment to Alaska.  In 1875, a priest from Montenegro, Father Sabbas Matanovich, arrived in San Francisco.  He was 
 received into the Bishop's house and served two or three Liturgies, but as he was not assigned a position, he went back home after several 
 months.  At the present time, the honourable Father Matanovich is an archpriest in Cetinje.  
 
 In the autumn of 1876, the Right Reverend John (Mitropolisky) was called back to Russia, and the Diocese was left widowed.  

Widowhood period 1876-1879

The term "widowhood" refers to those times when a diocese has been left bereft of its bishop either by a transfer or a death, and there is not an immediate replacement (the usual interim being 40 days). Although some people do not care for the expression, the relationship between a bishop and a diocese is often expressed as being like a marriage. Traditionally, a bishop remained the bishop of a diocese for life (unless some exceptional circumstance caused a move). There was a period of distortion of this permanent commitment which is seen in the transfers of bishops in the "Russian Mission". More recently, there has been an attempt to return to the traditional custom.

About the difficult years of widowhood after the recall of Bishop John (Mitropolsky), Archimandrite Sebastian (Dabovich) wrote :

 The Orthodox Church in America became an orphan.  This sad impression was left on everything.  There were no more sermons heard 
 in the Temple.  The Cathedral School began to disintegrate.  In 1877, the Temple was once more moved in the city.  It was now housed 
 in the building belonging to the Benevolent Society at 522 Greenwich Street.  It was a wooden structure, as had been the previous 
 ones.  And here, as in former accommodations, rent was a comparatively greater sum than was allotted for living expenses.  The clergy 
 and school were housed in a separate little house behind the Temple.  Now, the Temple ceased to be part of a house.  In its current 
 location it could accommodate up to 500 worshippers.  
 
 The year1878 was especially memorable in the life of the Church in San Francisco.  A horrible crime was committed on a priest, a man 
 whom it seemed difficult to hate.  The president of the Alaska Spiritual Consistory, Dean of the American Churches and Cathedral 
 Archpriest Paul Kedrolivansky was murdered on the night of 5-6/18 June, 1878.  The late Archpriest had served in this diocese 
 since 1863.  Here is what V. K., who served with him for 18 years, writes about him : 'Father Archpriest was continually occupied 
 with keeping peace and quiet in the community with which he was involved.  He was straightforward and even-tempered, honest and not 
 malicious.  He was a benefactor to those in need, a true friend to his friends, reliable and trustworthy in his relations towards 
 those with whom he served in particular and to all in general'. 
 
 'The investigation into the death of Father Archpriest was conducted with no special zeal, and for that reason his killers were given 
 the opportunity to set themselves up in such a way that they went unpunished.  The jury reached the verdict "murdered by person or 
 persons unknown"'.  
 
 In the autumn of 1878, a new archpriest, appointed by the Holy Synod, arrived in San Francisco.  This was Bachelor of Theology of the 
 Kazan Clergy Academy Vladimir Vechtomov, formerly superintendent of the Irkutsk Clergy School.

Bishop Nestor (Zakkis/Zass), 1878

Bishop John (Mitropolsky) was succeeded as Bishop of the Aleutian Islands and Alaska by Bishop Nestor (Zakkis) (or “Zass”).

Bishop Nestor (Zakkis)/(Zass)

On 17 December, 1878, the newly-ordained Bishop Nestor (Zakkis) was assigned to serve as the Bishop of the Aleutian Islands and Alaska.

Archimandrite Sebastian (Dabovich) cited a report by the "London Journal" regarding the information shared with the Church of England about the assignment to North America :

 The Holy Synod of the Russian Church has appointed to the Episcopal See of the Aleutian Islands the Archimandrite Nestor. 
 Father Nestor was in early life known as Baron Zass ; he was an officer in the navy, and besides his theological attainments 
 he is well versed in secular learning, and understands fully the English language, in which he expresses himself fluently. 
 He is distinguished for his lofty character, his Christian convictions, and his thorough devotion to duty. Father Nestor will 
 be quite in his proper place in America, for at the time of Admiral Lesoffsky's visit to New York, in 1863, he made himself 
 highly esteemed by the Americans.  It is to be hoped that the Episcopate of Father Nestor may be a source of close and intimate 
 relations between the Orthodox Russian Church and the Church of North America [meaning the Episcopalian Church].  A letter which 
 came to the Holy Synod, not long since, from the American bishops gives reason to hope thus.  God grant that through the 
 cooperation of the future Bishop of the Aleutian Islands brotherly relations may be established [between] these two great Churches. 

Bishop Nestor arrived from Russia in the Spring of 1879, accompanied by the Hieromonk German (or Herman). He took his responsibilities to heart. Even though the seat of the diocese was in San Francisco, more than 965 km (600 mi) outside its nominal boundaries, Vladyka Nestor made extensive tours to visit the Orthodox Christian communities in Alaska.

In 1879, Bishop Nestor visited Sitka.

In 1880, he travelled to Unalaska.

In 1881, he made an inspection of Kodiak.

Archimandrite Sebastian (Dabovich) wrote about him that, "Having made Bishop Nestor's acquaintance, Americans regarded him most highly as a man adorned with every Christian and civic virtue". He also reported that :

 In 1881, the Cathedral Church in San Francisco was moved to its present location.  On June 30 of that year, the purchase 
 deed for a house was signed by Gustave Niebaum for the sum of thirty-eight thousand dollars in American gold coin.  This 
 was a duplex house at 1713 & 1715 Powell Street near the wharves in North Beach between Russian and Telegraph Hills where 
 Powell crosses the wide commercial thoroughfare of Montgomery Ave.  Before the purchase of this property Bishop Nestor 
 and Father Herman lived in a private flat.  In the new house an apartment was arranged for the bishop as well as quarters 
 for the Ecclesiastical Administration — a school, a storage area and an archive.  The church with its new and elegant 
 principal iconostasis, its new holy table, its new vestment wardrobe, etc. was formed out of two rooms (at 1713 Powell St.). 
 In addition the large front room of the second story was removed, so that the altar area and a part of the church had high 
 walls — in two worlds.  The church was quite proper, and under the circumstances could not have been better.  

Bishop Nestor seemed to develop a trouble with significant headaches during 1881. As Archimandrite Sebastian further reported :

 In the winter of 1881-1882 His Grace frequently complained of headaches and suffered from general malaise.  Yet that did not 
 prevent him from preparing for a trip to Alaska in the spring of 1882.  This time he planned to visit the furthest reaches 
 of the mission in Alaska and spend the winter of 1882-1883 on the shores of the Kwipach (Yukon River) in the village of Ikogmut. 
 In view of all this he prepared for his needs, including even a rubber 'ryasa' and 'skufya'.  He obtained a small but well-
 supplied medicine chest from one Doctor Palitsky, a San Francisco resident.  His Grace left San Francisco in the first part 
 of May on the steamship St. Paul, belonging to the American Trading Company, taking along one of the school boys, Ivan 
 Shayashnikov, an unassuming young man of 17, as his travelling companion.  

It was on his second tour, which included the Kwikhpak missions along the Yukon River and as far north as Saint Michael's Redoubt, that he reposed in Christ as a consequence of an accident.

It was reported that, on 30 June, 1882, while he was on a steamship on the Bering Sea, he somehow fell off the deck of the ship that was transporting him back to San Francisco, and this despite his thorough naval formation. It is true that the Bering Sea can be treacherously stormy, but apparently at this time the weather was very calm. Vladyka's body was subsequently recovered and it was interred beside the Holy Ascension Cathedral at Unalaska, Alaska. Another report, however, indicates that the bishop had been killed by unknown assailants, and that he was interred within the Ascension Cathedral at Unalaska. The actual cause of death was never determined.

During the time of his short archpastoral service, Vladyka Nestor had blessed the beginning of the translation of the Holy Gospels into the Yup'ik Languages. As a part of this work, he had consulted the Vermont State Library with regard to making a set of printing type for the 34 characters of the Yup'ik alphabet.

During these years, Vladyka Nestor also was engaged in a broad correspondence with various people, some of whom were the clergy and Faithful of the missionary diocese. Others included President Rutherford B Hayes of the USA ; Metropolitan Isidore (Nikolsky) of Novgorod and Saint Petersburg ; Priest Nicholas Bjerring in New York City (editor of the "Oriental Church Magazine") ; Mr. Shpiegel, the Imperial Russian Ambassador ; and members of the Smithsonian Institution.

Bishop Nestor was the second bishop of this mission whose life was lost at sea.

After the sudden death of Bishop Nestor, it took 5 years before his successor was assigned. Meanwhile, the Diocese of the Aleutian Islands and Alaska was administered by the Metropolitan of Saint Petersburg.

Years of diocesan widowhood 1882-1888

Archimandrite Sebastian (Dabovich) reported about the interim years that followed the unexpected repose of Vladyka Nestor :

 After the death of his Grace Nestor (and for the space of 13 months) the Diocese of Alaska and the Aleutian Islands was 
 governed by the Metropolitan of Saint Petersburg, the Most Reverend Isidor and the Saint Petersburg Ecclesiastical 
 Consistory, through a member of the Alaskan Ecclesiastical Administration, the Cathedral Archpriest Vladimir Vechtomov. 
 Father Archpriest Vladimir governed in a manner similar to that of the Right Reverend Nestor.  He economised wisely in 
 financial matters and gradually paid off the debts of the Diocese.  Through his efforts new parish schools were opened 
 in the Diocese, etc.  
 
 When in the winter of 1885 the cantors of the Church in Sitka (at that time the priest's position was vacant) reported 
 to Father Archpriest that Alaskan Indians were being instructed in the teaching of the Orthodox Church and that fifty-two 
 of them were ready to receive Holy Baptism, he made the journey himself in March of 1886 and baptised them all on the eve 
 of the Annunciation in a solemn and moving service.  Archpriest V N Vechtomov left San Francisco in August of 1888 for 
 his home in Vyatka.

Beginnings of the “lower 48” immigration

Until this time, the 1880s, only small numbers of Orthodox Christians had immigrated to the USA from any of the historical homelands in which the Orthodox Christian Faith had flourished. There had been previously many documented instances of the presence of Orthodox Christians for one reason or another, from the days of the Norse in the present-day Newfoundland, Canada, and the early part of the 16th century in the Caribbean region. In the early 17th century, 2 Slavs and a Greek accompanied Samuel de Champlain in his exploration of the Saint Lawrence River Valley. In the 18th century, there were developing relationships between the "Virginia Company" and the recently-established Russian Empire. These comments do not include references to Orthodox Christians who visited the West Coast of Canada in the 18th century.

In colonial times (1768), an English land-grant settlement (populated mainly by Greeks from the Ottoman Empire) had been established in Florida (which had recently been acquired by Britain from the Spanish Empire). Quickly succumbing to disease, exploitation, and neglect, the New Smyrna Plantation was forcibly disbanded by British troops on the order of the English governor of Florida in 1769. Despite this end to the New Smyrna Plantation, this was not the end of the trading and employment relationship between the colonial businessmen and the Ottoman Empire. This relationship accounts for the presence of Greeks, Syrians and Serbs in the USA when the activity of the Alaskan Russian Mission began to spread southwards and eastwards. By this time, the Russian Orthodox Church had received correspondence from Episcopalian leadership in California with regard to establishing the Orthodox Church in the USA. However, their expressed hope was to be able themselves to be a part of such an entity. At that time, the nature of the conversations between the Anglicans and the Orthodox brought some hope to both, since there appeared to be a "nearness" to Orthodoxy on the part of the Anglicans. Of course, it is highly likely that those making these contacts with the Orthodox were "High-Church" Anglicans. At that time, this part of the Anglican communion did have an affinity to the Orthodox Faith. The Episcopalian bishop of San Francisco had reported the presence of about 400 Greek Orthodox persons (who attended services but would not receive the sacraments from them). There had been a visit in 1864 of a delegation of Anglicans to the Russian Orthodox Church. The delegation was led by the Episcopalian Bishop of New York. There followed an offer to help in constructing an Orthodox Temple in New York City, for which purpose money was collected, although the project did not come to fruition. Nevertheless, conversations between the Orthodox and the Anglicans continued for a long time.

In 1738, Philip Ludwell III and Frances Ludwell, who lived in the Virginia Colony, had become Orthodox Christians as a consequence of contacts in London, England, between the Virginia Company personnel and the Russian Orthodox people. However, Mrs. Frances Ludwell reposed in Christ in 1753, and Philip Ludwell reposed in Christ in 1767. While he was alive, however, Philip Ludwell established a family oratory (prayer chapel) in Williamsburg, Virginia Colony, in a manner very common amongst Orthodox Christian families. There, in the 1740s and 1750s, he prayed in the same manner as did faithful Russians and faithful Indigenous people in Alaska at about the same time. Furthermore, he had been given a particular and special blessing in London so that he was able to transport Presanctified Gifts (small portions of the Eucharist normally set aside for sick people only) to Virginia, where he, his family and those who also became Orthodox were able to receive Holy Communion. He, himself, translated the Divine Liturgies of Saint John Chrysostom and Saint Basil the Great, and also the Catechism of Metropolitan Peter (Moghila) of Kiev. The catechism was published in London in 1762. In this case also, there was no substantial continuance (although it seems that members of the Ludwell family continued to be practicing Orthodox Christians). Some of the descendants of Philip and Frances Ludwell seem to have been amongst those who established an Orthodox chapel in Galveston, Texas, in the 1850s.

By 1865, it seemed that there could already have been about 13,000 Orthodox Christians living in the "Lower 48". Because he had received such information, Metropolitan (Saint) Philaret (Drosdov) of Moscow promoted the consideration of establishing a Russian Orthodox Church in those states (it already existed in Alaska).

Then, in the last 2 decades of the 19th century, the first immigrants from the Russian Empire, and Greek and Arabic-speakers from the Ottoman Empire, and Serbs, Albanians, and Bulgarians from the Balkans, Romanians and others from other Orthodox homelands began to arrive first in the USA, and then in Canada. Towards the end of the century, the numbers arriving began to increase very rapidly because of economic opportunities in North America and many political disturbances in Europe, and in the regions of the Ottoman Empire in the Middle East.

Moreover, by this time, those who came to North America already were bringing with them earlier expressions of nationalistic sentiments. Such nationalistic sentiments had generally been developing after the revolutions of 1848 under various secular influences (the so-called "Enlightenment" and the ideas of the German philosopher G W F Hegel), and they influenced the perceptions of Orthodox Christians, albeit that their spirit was contrary to Orthodox Christian ecclesiology. Another term used for this phenomenon is "tribalism". Recently, in 1872, there had been a Pan-Orthodox Synod in Constantinople which condemned "ethno-phyletism". The presence of these sentiments amongst the people began to complicate the work of the pastors whose concern and responsibility was to feed all the rational sheep without distinction.

Bishop Vladimir (Sokolovsky-Avtonomov), 1888

Bishop Nestor (Zakkis) was succeeded as Bishop of the Aleutian Islands and Alaska by Bishop Vladimir (Sokolovsky-Avtonomov). Newly-ordained to the Holy Episcopate, Bishop Vladimir arrived in San Francisco in 1888.

Bishop Vladimir (Sokolovsky-Avtonomov)

He had brought with him 18 students and 5 faculty members from the Chełm (Kholm) Seminary in Poland, in order to assist in missionary work in California. Bishop Vladimir had a gift for learning languages, and he had already spent more than 10 years in Japan, where he had worked together with Father Nicholas (Kasatkin). Afterwards, he had taught at the Orthodox Christian Seminary in Chełm.

Bishop Vladimir and the San Francisco Pastoral School, about 1890

Bishop Vladimir was both a strict ascetic and a talented musician. He travelled widely throughout the USA. Wherever he went, the quality of Church singing improved. He focussed his attention on the mission to the continental USA. Bishop Vladimir was the first person in North America to attempt substantial linguistic and cultural transitions in the liturgical life of the Orthodox in North America. As he encouraged the use of the English language at the cathedral in San Francisco, Vladyka Vladimir translated the common chants of the Russian Church into the English language, so as to help make Orthodoxy more intelligible to the American parishioners.

Vladyka Vladimir assigned Father (Saint) Sebastian Dabovich, the first Orthodox priest to have been born in the USA, to be the “English Preacher” for the cathedral. As a fruit of these efforts, a new, larger cathedral, dedicated to Saint Nicholas was constructed in San Francisco in 1888, shortly after his arrival. At that time, of the 700 Orthodox Christians who lived in California, 350 lived in San Francisco.

Father Sebastian (Dabovich) later wrote that :

 Soon after his arrival in San Francisco, the Bishop enlarged the house church to almost double in size.  The Temple 
 became magnificent in appearance.  Much was spent on icons, vestments and other adornments.  But unfortunately this 
 Temple stood for not even a year.  On 9 May, 1889, on the feast of St. Nicholas the Wonderworker, the Temple's patron 
 saint, at two o'clock in the morning it caught fire.  The bishop was the first wakened.  He barely managed to escape 
 from his office through a burning corridor to the lower floor, burned by shards of glass falling from the skylights. 
 Hegumen George [Chudnovsky] fell into the flames and was nearly lost.  The other thirty residents of the bishop's 
 house escaped through windows, down the fire escapes and over the fences.  The interior of the church was gutted ; 
 the entire vestment closet was lost, ravaged by fire and water.  The cause of the fire is not known to this day.  
 So the Right Reverend Vladimir was required to rebuild the church and the house a second time.  Apart from monetary 
 subsidies received from insurers at this time, among the first, the Right Reverend Gherman, a member of the Holy Synod, 
 sent a thousand rubles.  Parishioners in San Francisco and its environs donated somewhere around 970 dollars.  The 
 Temple was now consecrated in memory of Saint Basil the Great.  

At the time of Bishop Vladimir's arrival, there were also many Uniat immigrants to the USA who were beginning to return to the Orthodox Christian Church.

It is written that many decades later, Metropolitan Leonty (Turkevich) called Vladyka Vladimir "the meteor" because in his short time on the continent, he made 3 trans-continental journeys during which he sought out Orthodox Christians, groups of Orthodox Christians, and also those who might be brought into the Orthodox Christian sheep-fold.

In late 1890, Vladyka Vladimir met with a group of people from Minneapolis, Minnesota. They were led by Father Alexis Toth (the future Saint Alexis of Wilkes-Barre). On 25 March, 1891, Father Alexis and his parish of Saint Mary in Minneapolis were received back into the Orthodox Church by Bishop Vladimir. This reception initiated a movement which would continue for several decades.

In addition, the bishop himself was practicing the study of the English language, and he encouraged others in the same study. Ultimately, the bishop preached in English. This rapid appearance of English, even though only in parts of the services, produced resistance amongst some. They resented the fact that the use of English, together with Bishop Vladimir's evangelical activities, were bringing many American converts into the Church. Then followed the question : for whom was the Temple established, for Russians and other Orthodox immigrants, or for Americans. They felt that they were becoming a minority (although it was not likely truly so).

Bishop Vladimir (Sokolovsky-Avtonomov) was not able to accomplish everything without opposition. This opposition was not from within the Church in the USA in particular, but from other elements which had other agendas.

Keeping in mind the strict asceticism of Bishop Vladimir, there was opposition that developed from circles of political immigrants who had come from Russia, and who hated both Tsarist Russia and the Russian Orthodox Church. Their leader was a certain Dr. Sudilkovsky (a.k.a. N M Russel). Metropolitan Leonty (Turkevich) later wrote about this man that he,

 taking advantage of the fact that a boarding-house for singing boys had been created at the bishop’s headquarters, 
 spread vile rumours about the alleged unclean life of the bishop.  Pointing to the huge number of fasting days that were
 followed according to the canons of the Orthodox Church, which were strictly observed in the guesthouse, he filed a motion 
 to close the seminary as being an institution contrary to the adopted rules on the nutrition of children.  An investigation
 was initiated about the bishop. [...]   

Archimandrite Sebastian (Dabovich) had earlier commented :

 To the deep regret of all true children of Orthodoxy, the bishop underwent many tribulations and moral anxieties as a result 
 of disgraceful intrigues against his person on the part of certain nihilists.  [...] To the bishop's Cross were added most 
 grievous trials in the form of personal attacks stemming from the dark malice of several fallen individuals.  But, by the mercy 
 of God, in the end truth was victorious, and the bishop triumphed over his enemies.  

The opposition raised against Bishop Vladimir's missionary work brought allegations that were investigated by the civil courts in California. Complaints had been made also to the Ober-Prokurator of the Most Holy Synod, Konstantin P Pobedonostsev, with a request that the bishop be removed. Nevertheless, as Archimandrite Sebastian wrote, Vladyka Vladimir "tripmphed over his enemies".

This sort of opposition to the missionary activities of sincere, Christ-loving clergy and lay-workers appeared again and again in North America throughout the centuries to follow.

The torment that Bishop Vladimir felt about this negative reaction to his strong desire to establish the Russian Mission on a firm foundation cannot be expressed. Finally, he could not bear it any longer, and he considered that it would be better that he leave the diocese. He expressed this consideration to the appropriate authorities.

In 1891, Bishop Vladimir (Sokolovsky-Avtonomov) was recalled to Russia for re-assignment to the Diocese of Orenburg and the Urals.

Bishop Nicholas (Ziorov), 1891

Bishop Vladimir (Sokolovsky-Avtonomov) was succeeded as Bishop of the Aleutian Islands and Alaska by Bishop Nicholas (Ziorov). Bishop Nicholas (Ziorov) had been ordained to the Holy Episcopate on 29 September, 1891, and he was immediately assigned to serve as the Bishop of the Aleutian Islands and Alaska. Before this, he had served for several years as the rector of the Moscow Theological Academy.

Despite the opposition by some to the missionary activities of Bishop Vladimir, Bishop Nicholas (Ziorov) continued the work of the mission in North America in the same manner as his predecessor. The pastoral work in North America was clearly not to be merely for the immigrants ; but as well as that, it was for reaching anyone who desired to embrace the Orthodox Christian Faith, whoever that might be. The missionary work was and remained rooted in the Dominical command :

 Go therefore and make disciples of all the nations, baptising them in the Name of the Father and of the Son
 and of the Holy Spirit, teaching them to observe all things that I have commanded you ; and lo, I am with you 
 always, even to the end of the age (Matthew 28:19-20).  

Bishop Nicholas (Ziorov)

During the time of his service in North America, Bishop Nicholas made 2 major pastoral rounds of visits in Alaska to the 9 parishes and 30 chapels there. When he saw and understood the plight of the Orthodox Christians in this territory, he turned to President W McKinley of the USA, to whom he wrote :

 [...] Alaska needs radical reform in all respects [...].  It needs not only the rights promised by the treaty of 1867, 
 by which it was ceded to America by the Russian government, but also the firm protection of these rights by the law 
 and the authorities. [...]

He commented also that the abuses of government officials and private companies had brought the territory to complete exhaustion in its fishing resources. This had also led the people into poverty and to making hunger strikes. He further complained about the unjust oppression of the Orthodox Christian Church. About this, he wrote :

 There is nothing to reproach us with.  The only thing that we can be blamed for is that we profess the true Faith 
 and have not lost our sympathies for our faithful Russia ; but is this really worthy of blame and persecution ? 
 There is no danger to American rule in Alaska, as others might like to interpret this fact, because our Church 
 never intervenes in politics. 

During his service in the USA, the Orthodox presence in the main part of the USA grew from 5 to 17 parishes.

With the shift of the focus of pastoral activity towards the eastern United States, Bishop Nicholas transferred the mission school from San Francisco to Minneapolis, Minnesota. Vladyka Nicholas acquired a good library, which he eventually gave to the seminary. He also sent several American theological students to Russia, where they studied at the Saint Petersburg Theological Academy.

Bishop Nicholas gathered many strong co-workers

Bishop Nicholas gathered together able assistants, many of whom would come to be recognised as being amongst the significant personalities in the growth of the North American Mission. These included :

 (Saint) Archimandrite Sebastian (Dabovich) ; (Saint) Archpriest Alexis Toth ; 
 Bishop Innocent (Pustynsky) ; (Saint) Bishop Raphael Hawaweeny ; 
 (Saint) Archpriest Alexander Hotovitzky ; (Saint) Archpriest John Kochurov ; 
 Archpriest Theodore Pashkovsky ; Priest Jacob Korchinsky ; 
 (Saint) Hieromonk Seraphim (Samoilovich) ; Priest Vladimir Alexandrov ;  
 Archimandrite Anatoly (Kamensky) ; Jason Kappanadze, and others.  

Alexander Dmitrievich Pustynsky, 1893

In 1893, at the request of Bishop Nicholas (Ziorov), Alexander Dmitrievich Pustynsky was sent immediately after his graduation from the Kiev Theological Academy to North America, and he was assigned by Bishop Nicholas to be the sacristan of the cathedral in San Francisco, California, where he served briefly.

In 1894, Bishop Nicholas tonsured him to be a monk, and gave him the name Innocent. Soon after that, he ordained the Monk Innocent (Pustynsky) to the Holy Diaconate and to the Holy Priesthood. Vladyka Nicholas had begun to prepare the Hieromonk Innocent (Pustynsky) for his future service, which would include a return to North America under the next bishop (Bishop Tikhon (Belavin)). Before his return to Russia, Father Innocent was sent by Bishop Nicholas to serve briefly in the parishes of the Nativity of the Holy Virgin in Osceola Mills, and of Saint Nicholas in Allegheny (Pittsburgh) in Pennsylvania, after which he was sent back to Russia in 1895.

Archimandrite Raphael (Hawaweeny), 1895

In 1895, Archimandrite Raphael (Hawaweeny) was invited by Dr. Ibrahim Arbeely, the president of the Syrian Orthodox Benevolent Society in New York, to move there to care for the Arabic-speaking immigrants. After speaking with Bishop Nicholas (Ziorov) in Saint Petersburg, and after receiving the blessing for this work, he travelled to New York with 2 other men to begin his missionary work in the USA.

With the blessing of Bishop Nicholas (Ziorov), he established a new chapel in Manhattan (dedicated to Saint Nicholas of Myra) in order to provide for the sheep entrusted to him.

In 1898, he made yet another continental pastoral journey. In the same year, with the blessing of Bishop Nicholas, Father Raphael produced his first book in North America — a Service Book in Arabic called "The Book of True Consolation in the Divine Prayers". This book of liturgical services and prayers was very useful to priests in celebrating the Divine Services, and also to the people in their personal prayer life. The English version published by Archimandrite Seraphim (Nassar) is still being used today.

While he was yet a priest, he crossed the continent repeatedly in the course of 9 years.

Following these events, with the blessing of Bishop Nicholas, Father Raphael was able to bring some Arabic-speaking priests to North America to begin to meet the needs of the far-flung flock.

In 1902, Father Raphael (Hawaweeny) was able to buy an existing large church building at 301-303, Pacific Street, in Brooklyn, and he had it remodelled for Orthodox worship. The Syrian parish of Saint Nicholas in Manhattan moved to this new site.

Russian Orthodox American Messenger

It was Bishop Nicholas who initiated the publication of the English-Russian-language weekly, the “Russian Orthodox American Messenger” under the editorship of Father Alexander Hotovitsky.

In 1896, the Annunciation Greek Orthodox Church in Montréal, Québec, was established.

In 1897, Bishop Nicholas was the first bishop of the Russian Mission to pay a visit to some of the faithful who had settled in central Canada, around Winnipeg, Manitoba. Furthermore, it was under the blessing of Vladyka Nicholas that the Priest Dmitry Kamnev and Deacon Vladimir Alexandrov made the first missionary journey to the Edmonton, Alberta, area in what was then the Northwest Territories (now the Province of Alberta) of Canada (the Province of Saskatchewan was established from the Northwest Territories of that time ; afterwards, the Northwest Territories was only in the far north). This visit brought about the formal beginning of several dozen Orthodox Christian communities amongst the newly-arrived immigrants from the Russian and Austro-Hungarian Empires. Indeed, by 1918, there were 64 parishes established in Canada, served by 47 clergy.

It was under Vladyka Nicholas's leadership and blessing that many young priests were recruited and ordained, and that the beginning of the return of Uniats to the Orthodox Christian Faith truly began.

By 1898, Bishop Nicholas had embraced many parishes in their return to the Orthodox Faith from the Unia. These included those in Chicago in Illinois ; Cleveland in Ohio ; Pittsburgh, Osceola Mills, Old Forge, Wilkes-Barre, Catasaqua, in Pennsylvania ; Buffalo in New York ; Ansonia and Bridgeport in Connecticut.

In 1898, Bishop Nicholas (Ziorov) was transferred back to Russia for re-assignment.

Bishop Tikhon (Belavin), 1898

Bishop Nicholas (Ziorov) was succeeded as Bishop of the Aleutian Islands and Alaska by Bishop Tikhon (Belavin). In 1898, he was transferred from Chełm in Poland. He was assigned to serve as the bishop of the Mission Diocese of the Aleutian Islands and Alaska of the Russian Orthodox Church. Immediately upon his arrival, Bishop Tikhon continued the missionary policies and methods of his predecessors.

The immediate impression that a person would receive was of a pleasant, if disarming, completely atypical Russian bishop. He was not at all pompous, and completely unpretentious. He was certainly inclusive as a pastor, as he followed the example of the Holy Apostle Paul in 1 Corinthians 9:19-23 by becoming "all things to all men".

One important element in his missionary work included encouraging the various parishes to take up the economic responsibilities of their own parishes, rather than to depend upon subsidies. Although the missionary societies in the Russian Empire did supply many initial practical needs in the establishment of the parishes and the construction of their Temples, Bishop Tikhon encouraged the communities to find their own ways to cover their own expenses. Such a preparation perhaps reduced somewhat the drastic effects on the North American Church after the Russian Revolution less than 20 years later.

Bishop Tikhon (Belavin)

Bishop Tikhon immediately began to visit the many communities under his care. These included not only those in the main part of the USA, but also those in Alaska, and in Canada to the north. At that time, this travel involved railways, ships, horses, wagons, and sometimes only feet. On one such early trip to Canada, a carriage that overturned in a ditch caused him a small injury. However, undaunted, he forged on.

In May, 1900, Bishop Tikhon undertook a 78-day tour of the parishes and villages of Alaska. Not only did he become well-acquainted with this region, but he also quickly became beloved of the peoples. At the same time, he set about addressing the needs of the multitude of immigrants who were arriving in both the USA and Canada.

Diocese of the Aleutian Islands and North America, 1900

In 1900, in recognition of the growth and stability of the Russian Missionary Diocese in North America, the Most Holy Synod in Saint Petersburg changed the name of this diocese to the “Diocese of the Aleutian Islands and North America”.

Priest Alexander Hotovitsky, missionary labourer, 1898-1914

From 1898 to 1907, the Priest Alexander Hotovitzky continued his service served as a pastor under the omophor of the successor of Bishop Nicholas (Ziorov), Bishop Tikhon (Belavin).

Father Alexander Hotovitsky Fresco in the cathedral

After the departure to Russia of the rector of the Saint Nicholas Parish, the Priest Evtikhiy Balanovich, Father Alexander had been assigned there in his place. Having become rector of the Saint Nicholas Parish, in 1899, the young shepherd took on the demanding work of building the new, majestic Saint Nicholas Church in Manhattan instead of the small parish church in the mezzanine of the house at 323, 2nd Avenue. With the blessing of Bishop Tikhon (Belavin), on 13/25 August, 1899, Father Alexander bought land for the construction of the new Temple on 97th Avenue in New York.

In February, 1900, he received the blessing from the Most Holy Synod, and also from the emperor, Tsar Nikolai Alexandrovich, to raise funds for the construction of the new Temple of Saint Nicholas. Thus, the blessing came from the highest authorities, both ecclesiastical and political.

With Father Alexander as the head of the Saint Nicholas parish in New York City, this community immediately flourished. As a consequence, Father Alexander was able to initiate the construction of a new cathedral at 15 East 97th Street in New York. This arduous burden of construction resulted in the architecturally remarkable and majestic Saint Nicholas Cathedral in New York, which replaced the previous small parish church. The cathedral was to become an adornment of the city itself. He visited Orthodox communities throughout the USA in order to solicit funds for the construction of the Cathedral.

In 1900, Father Alexander travelled to his homeland, Russia, for the purpose of fundraising. Tsar Nicholas II was the first contributor.

Father Alexander was able, with God's help and the blessing of Saint John of Kronstadt to complete the construction of the new Temple of Saint Nicholas in New York, which eventually became the diocesan cathedral. Further, Father Alexander was active in establishing missionary work in Eastern Canada, particularly in Montréal. In association with his missionary labours, at least 12 parishes were established on the East Coast of the USA, besides those established elsewhere in the country.

Visit to Russia ; searching for workers ; finding Hieromonk Arseny (Chahovtsov), 1900

In 1900, Bishop Tikhon, who had assessed the North American territory to which he had been assigned, had begun the process of reorganising the diocese. He had travelled to the Russian Empire, and he was visiting various places with a view to finding more labourers to work in the North American spiritual mission field. At this very time, he met the Hieromonk Arseny (Chahovtsov), who had newly been assigned to serve as the "econom" (administrator) of the Kuryazhsky Transfiguration Monastery in the Kharkov Governorate. After their meeting, Bishop Tikhon extended an invitation for Father Arseny to move to North America.

Hieromonk Arseny (Chahovtsov)

Bishop Tikhon understood that Father Arseny was a natural preacher. He perceived that Father Arseny had fluency in many Russian and Ukrainian dialects. Therefore, he was clearly well-suited to the North American missionary environment.

In November, 1902, in accordance with the request of Archbishop Tikhon, the Hieromonk Arseny (Chahovtsov) was assigned by the Most Holy Synod to the North American Orthodox Mission.

Father Arseny then became active in serving amongst those who were returning to Orthodoxy from the Unia (Eastern Catholic churches), and he served many communities in the eastern USA after his arrival. These included West Troy in New York, and Mayfield and Simpson in Pennsylvania. In this work, he collaborated with the Archpriest Alexis Toth in his labours in the conversion to the Orthodox Christian Faith of Uniats who had come from what is now Ukraine and from Carpatho-Rus', to the Orthodox Christian Faith.

Bishop Tikhon's attempt to incorporate the Church in Canada, 1902

In 1902, Bishop Tikhon attempted to bring about a federal incorporation of the Bishop of Canada, but there was enough resistance amongst certain members of parliament in Ottawa, Ontario, and there were sufficient delays, that the bill "died". It was not until 1903 that Bishop Tikhon was able to achieve an incorporation in the Northwest Territories (which later became the Province of Alberta and the Province of Saskatchewan, as well as the much smaller Northwest Territories). Bishop Tikhon also made several pastoral visits to the developing communities in Western Canada. All these were undertaken by railway, horse-and-carriage, horse, and foot.

In his early years, Bishop Tikhon was the only bishop on the continent. Because of this, during that time, he had to meet the pastoral and spiritual needs of Yup'iks, Aleuts (Unangans), Alutiiqs, Tlingits, Athabascans, other indigenous peoples, Anglo-Americans, Hispano-Americans, Anglo-Canadians, Franco-Canadians, Syrians, Greeks, Galicians, Carpatho-Rusyns, Russians, Serbs, Romanians, Bukovinians, Bulgarians, Albanians and others. It was during his time as the Bishop of the Aleutians (beginning in 1898 in San Francisco) that the emigration from Eastern Europe and the Mediterranean Countries to North America increased greatly.

Some missionary workers, 1902

In 1904, Bishop Tikhon (Belavin) moved the see city of the diocese from San Francisco to New York City, and to the newly constructed Saint Nicholas Cathedral in upper Manhattan.

Saint Nicholas Cathedral : 15, East 97 Street, New York City

Vicar-Bishop Innocent (Pustynsky) of Alaska, 1904

In early 1904, the newly-ordained Bishop Innocent (Pustynsky) was assigned by the Most Holy Synod to serve as the Bishop of Alaska, and as a Vicar-Bishop of the Diocese of the Aleutians and North America. Bishop Innocent (Pustynsky) of Alaska was the first auxiliary (vicar) bishop to be ordained for Archbishop Tikhon (Belavin) of the North American Diocese, and he served as Bishop of Alaska in North America from 1904 to 1909.

In 1905 while he was in Sitka, Alaska, Bishop Innocent (Pustynsky) tonsured the future New-martyr (Saint) Semyon Nikolayevich Samoilovich to be a monk, gave him the name Seraphim, and then ordained him to the Holy Diaconate and to the Holy Priesthood. Father Seraphim continued to serve in Alaska, in the Russian Mission, until 1908.

Vicar-Bishop Innocent (Pustynsky) of Sitka, Alaska

Vicar-Bishop Raphael (Hawaweeny) of Brooklyn, 1904

In early 1904, the Most Holy Synod of the Russian Orthodox Church accepted the proposal of Bishop Tikhon about the episcopal ordination of Archimandrite Raphael (Hawaweeny) for the North American diocese, and they elected him to become a bishop.

Archimandrite Raphael, the Syrian pastor who had been shepherding the Arabic-speaking parishes in North America since 1895, had been doing so under the supervision and blessing of the Russian Diocesan Administration.

On 6 March, 1904, with the blessing of the Most Holy Synod of the Church of Russia, Archimandrite Raphael (Hawaweeny) was ordained to the Holy Episcopate in the Syrian Church of Saint Nicholas in Brooklyn, New York City, by Bishop Tikhon (Belavin) and Bishop Innocent (Pustynsky) of Alaska.

Bishop Raphael had thus become the first Orthodox Christian bishop to be ordained in North America.

Vladyka (Sayidna in Arabic) Raphael (Hawaweeny) was assigned to serve as a Vicar-Bishop of the Russian Orthodox Church in North America, as the Bishop of Brooklyn, New York.

Sayidna Raphael established a journal, "al-Kalimat" ("The Word"), in order to spread "the Word" to places he could not himself be. He also worked diligently at translating Greek liturgical books into Arabic. Moreover, he continued to travel repeatedly across the continent in his archpastoral visits to the many far-flung and far-separated communities under his care. The fruit of these visits was the development and establishment of 29 parishes.

In 1905, Sayidna Raphael was actively involved in the establishment and blessing of the new Monastery of Saint Tikhon of Zadonsk in South Canaan, Pennsylvania. Thereafter, he continued to be a benefactor of this community.

In 1909, Sayidna Raphael was the administrator of the whole diocese.

[In 2000, at a special service at Saint Tikhon’s Monastery, Bishop Raphael was glorified as a saint, with the designation “Bishop of Brooklyn, Shepherd of the Lost Sheep of North America”.]

Vicar-Bishop Raphael (Hawaweeny) of Brooklyn

Archdiocese of the Aleutian Islands and North America, 1905

In 1905, the Most Holy Synod of the Russian Church elevated the diocese to the dignity of an archdiocese.

In 1905, Bishop Tikhon (Belavin) was elevated to the dignity of archbishop.

Monastery and Orphanage of Saint Tikhon of Zadonsk, South Canaan, Pennsylvania, 1905

In 1905, Saint Tikhon’s Monastery and orphanage were founded at South Canaan, Pennsylvania, through the enterprising vision and hard work of Father Arseny (Chahovtsov), the monk-priest of the parish of Saint John the Baptist in nearby Mayfield, Pennsylvania.

The thought about founding a monastery in North America was primarily that of the young Hieromonk Arseny (Chahovtsov). Since he (as a hieromonk) was serving at that time as a parish priest, his thought was that part of the monastery's function would be to serve as a "mother house" for the monks who were serving as clergy in the Orthodox North American mission. He considered that the monks who were doing this work needed a monastery in which first to be "acclimatised" to the American situation, and to which they could return periodically for spiritual refreshment.

Father Arseny promoted the possibility at every opportunity. Others took up the idea. As early as 1903, there appeared in the diocesan newspaper, "Russian Orthodox American Messenger" an article written by the Priest Alexander Nemolovsky, in which he not only endorsed the idea of the necessity of founding a monastery in Pennsylvania, but also the notion that a pastoral school or theological seminary should also be attached to such a monastery. With prophetic insight, Father Alexander wrote that

 certainly a few monks with higher theological education could be found for this monastery, who would 
 become professors of a pastoral seminary.  For this, it seems, one could not find a more suitable place.  
 Maintenance would be cheaper and the pupils would be shielded from temptations.  Here the site itself 
 of a seminary would find them immersed in studies and not distracted by exterior things.  

The idea continued to gather momentum, and an opportunity for more concrete action came on 15 May, 1905, at the Sixth Convention of the "Russian Orthodox Catholic Mutual-Aid Society" (ROCMAS) in Cleveland, Ohio. At that time, discussion focussed on the necessity for opening an orphanage for the orphaned children of Russian people in the USA. The consensus of the convention was that this be done, and motions were made to that effect in order to enable the project. Thus, the origins of the monastery are to be found alike in love for God and in love for neighbour (see Matthew 22:35-40).

Hieromonk Arseny had been a delegate to this convention, and he further moved that a monastery be founded in connection with the orphanage, on a farm not far from Mayfield, in an area of northeastern Pennsylvania where Orthodox Christian Rusyns had begun to settle. A committee was formed, which consisted of Archpriest Alexander Hotovitsky, Hieromonk Arseny, Priest Jason Kappanadze, and the laymen Theodore Bachna (from Mayfield), and Luka Thier (from Wilkes-Barre). Investigative journeys were undertaken by both Vladyka Tikhon and Father Arseny.

The land they had decided to purchase was the farm of E Wagner, located in South Canaan Township in western Wayne County, in the northeastern corner of Pennsylvania. Vladyka Tikhon inserted his official resolution near the top of the report, dated 31 May, 1905. He also donated $100 of his own funds to the project (this was in addition to $50 he had given at the convention in Cleveland towards the Orphan's Home), and he assigned Father Arseny to be the project organiser. The combined report appeared in the "Russian American Orthodox Messenger" ("Vestnik").

Shortly thereafter, Vladyka Tikhon gave a further $1,000.00 ($500.00 for the monastery and $500.00 for the home). Father Arseny also donated $300.00, and 4 of his parishioners from Mayfield donated $700.00 (Clement Buranich, $300 ; Kirill Kellichowa, $200 ; Kirill Stavitsky, $200 ; and Andrew Sisak, $100).

The formal purchase, concluded 26 June, 1905, for the sum of $2,580.00, was executed in the names of Archbishop Tikhon and Hieromonk Arseny. Shortly afterwards, in his joy at this milestone and realising its significance, Father Arseny wrote to Father Alexander Hotovitsky, the editor of the "Russian American Orthodox Messenger", and he reported about the purchase of the land. His letter appeared in the "Messenger", accompanied by an article about the new orphanage, which he had had printed in the newspaper "Svet".

The dedication of the new monastery/orphanage grounds and the celebration of the first Divine Liturgy on the site were scheduled for Monday, 31 July, 1905. This would become considered to be the first monastery pilgrimage. Since Father Arseny was the pastor of the Saint John the Baptist parish in Mayfield, several of whose parishioners were generous in their support of the monastery project, it was natural for the parish to be involved in the proceedings.

Accordingly, the festivities began 2 days earlier, on Saturday, 29 July, with the arrival in Mayfield of Bishop Raphael of Brooklyn, Vicar-Bishop to Archbishop Tikhon. Bishop Raphael, only recently ordained to the Holy Episcopacy, was to perform the services of dedication at the monastery as well. His arrival at Mayfield occasioned a warm welcome by Russians from area parishes : "It seemed that the population of the entire valley had gathered at Saint John's parish for an unprecedented festive occasion". Later, Bishop Raphael blessed the grounds, foundation and initial structures of the monastery and of the orphanage. In August, on the Feast of Saint Tikhon of Zadonsk, the first pilgrimage and its services were held at the monastery, and construction continued.

The construction of everything was completed during the winter, and on 30 May, 1906, the sanctification of the monastery, together with the second pilgrimage were celebrated. This was the second pilgrimage, and the first pilgrimage on Memorial Day. Present for this were Archbishop Tikhon (Belavin), Bishop Raphael (Hawaweeny), and Bishop Innocent (Pustynsky), as well as Igumen Arseny (Chahovtsov), the Priest Alexander Hotovitzky, the Archpriest Alexis Toth, and many others.

During all the preparatory steps, those involved both noticed and commented about the many providential events which indicated God's blessing. A very large number of Faithful from near and far participated in this first Memorial Day Pilgrimage.

Saint Tikhon's Monastery

Blessing of the orphanage

At this monastery, a seminary would eventually be established under the leadership of Archbishop Arseny (Chahovtsov) on the same grounds, in association with the monastery and orphanage.

He was the first abbot of the monastery, and he later became Bishop Arseny of Winnipeg and Canada. In Canada, he continued to try to establish monastic life in a similar manner to his work in Pennsylvania.

A lecture about the history of the monastery (with visible memorabilia), particularly with reference to the annual Memorial Day Pilgrimage is available here, given by the Archpriest John Perich. A host of his relatives live in Western Canada. Father John Perich is the curator of the Metropolitan Museum of The Orthodox Church of America at Saint Tikhon's Monastery, and a member of the Department of History and Archives of the Orthodox Church in America.

First All-American Sobor, 1907

The First All-American Sobor (Council) of the missionary diocese in North America took place on 5-7 March, 1907, in Mayfield, Pennsylvania.

Under Saint Tikhon’s initiative and guidance, each parish sent not only their priest, but also a lay delegate to this sobor. The theme of the sobor was “How to Spread the Mission”.

Archbishop Tikhon's General Plan

When all the bishops of the Russian Orthodox Church were asked their opinions in 1905 regarding Church reform, Archbishop Tikhon stated that the North American archdiocese should become a single self-governing Orthodox Church made up of all Orthodox Christians of all nationalities. This Church would use the "New-Style calendar" (Revised Julian Calendar), similar to the American civil calendar. The Church would eventually use the English language for its liturgical services and activities. English translations of the main liturgical services of the Church had already been done by then, and in 1906 the landmark service book compiled and translated by Isabel Florence Hapgood was published. Archbishop Tikhon and Bishop Raphael were strongly supported in their advocacy of the use of English by Father Ingram Nathaniel Irvine, a former Episcopalian priest who converted to Orthodoxy in 1905, and who was ordained to be an Orthodox priest in that same year. Archbishop Tikhon assigned him to “English work” in the Russian American Mission.

Archbishop Tikhon’s plan for the gradual development of an autonomous American Church included a hierarchy drawn from all the different ethnic Orthodox peoples.

In 1904, Archimandrite Raphael (Hawaweeny) had been ordained to the Holy Episcopate for the main purpose of caring for the Syro-Arab portion of the diocesan flock as a bishop. However, Bishop Raphael's service in the diocese was not limited to these rational sheep alone.

A similar plan was set for the ordination of a bishop from amongst the Serbian clergy in the USA, who would be responsible for the pastoral care of the Serbian Orthodox Christians scattered across North America. With this goal in mind, in 1905, the Hieromonk Sebastian (Dabovich), after being elevated to the dignity of archimandrite, was assigned to serve as “Administrator of the Serbian branch of the Orthodox Church in America”, with his headquarters at the Holy Resurrection Church in Chicago, Illinois. Circumstances blocked the advancement of this possibility within the Russian Mission itself.

Archbishop Tikhon (Belavin) was recalled to Russia in 1907.

 From Saint Tikhon’s last sermon preached in America, at Saint Nicholas Cathedral, 
 New York City, on the first Sunday of Great Lent, 1907
 
 [...] It is not enough, brethren, simply to celebrate 'The Triumph of Orthodoxy'.  It is necessary for us 
 personally to promote and contribute to this triumph. And for this we must reverently preserve the 
 Orthodox Faith, standing firm in it in spite of the fact that we live in a non-Orthodox country, and not 
 pleading as an excuse for our apostasy that 'it is not the old land here but America, a free country, and 
 therefore it is impossible to follow everything that the Church requires'.  As if the word of Christ is only 
 suitable for the old land and not for the entire world ! As if the Church of Christ is not 'catholic' ! As if 
 the Orthodox Faith did not 'establish the universe' ! 
 
 Furthermore, while faithfully preserving the Orthodox Faith, everyone must also take care to spread it among 
 the non-Orthodox. Christ the Saviour said that having lit the candle, men do not put it under a bushel but on 
 a candlestick so that it gives light to all (see Matthew 5:15).  The light of the Orthodox Faith has not been lit 
 to shine only for a small circle of people.  No, the Orthodox Church is catholic ; she remembers the commandment 
 of her Founder, 'Go ye into all the world and preach the Gospel to every creature and teach all nations' 
 (Mark 16:15 ; Matthew 28:19). 
 
 We must share our spiritual richness, truth, light, and joy with others who do not have these blessings. 
 And this duty does not only lay upon the pastors and the missionaries but on the lay persons as well, since the 
 Church of Christ, according to the wise comparison of the Holy Apostle Paul, is the body, and every member takes 
 part in the life of the body. By means of all sorts of mutually binding bonds which are formed and strengthened 
 through the action of every member according to his capacity, the great Church body receives an increase unto 
 the edifying of itself (see Ephesians 4:16). 
 
 In the first centuries it was not only the pastors who were tortured, but lay persons as well— men, women, and 
 even children. And it was lay people likewise who enlightened the heathen and fought heresies. And now in the 
 same way, the spreading of the Faith should be a matter that is personal, heartfelt, and dear to each one of us. 
 Every member of the Church must take an active part in it — some by personal podvig spreading the Good News, some 
 by material donations and service to 'the needs of the holy persons', and some by profuse prayer to the Lord that 
 He 'keep His Church firm and multiply it' — and concerning those unaware of Christ, that He would 'proclaim the 
 word of truth to them, open to them the Gospel of Truth, and join them to the Holy Catholic and Apostolic Church'. 
 I have told this numerous times to my flock. And today, upon my departing from this land, I once more command all 
 of you to preserve and act upon this, and especially you brethren of this holy Temple. [...]   
 
 Farewell to you, this country ! For some you are the motherland, the place of birth ; for others you gave shelter, 
 work, and well-being.  Some received the freedom to profess the right Faith in your liberal land.  [...]   
 
 Let God’s blessing be upon this country, this city, and this Temple. And let 'the blessing of the Lord, with Grace 
 and love for man', rest upon you all, 'now and ever and unto the ages of ages.  Amen'.

Archbishop Platon (Rozhdestvensky, 1907

Archbishop Tikhon (Belavin) was succeeded by Archbishop Platon (Rozhdestvensky) in 1907.

Bishop Platon (Rozhdestvensky)

After Archbishop Tikhon (Belavin) was transferred to a diocese in Russia in the Spring of 1907, Archbishop Platon (Rozhdestvensky) was assigned by the Most Holy Synod to be the next ruling bishop of the North American diocese.

Archbishop Platon had previously served both as the Second Vicar-Bishop of the Kyiv Diocese, and also as a representative of the Kiev Governorate at the 2nd State Duma.

From the beginning, Archbishop Platon welcomed very many more people from the Unia into the Orthodox Christian Church. Thus, he supplemented the multitude already received through the work of Saint Alexis Toth and others. A similar work was undertaken in Canada at about this time by Archimandrite Arseny (Chahovtsov). He did this first as an archimandrite and then later as a bishop.

Archbishop Platon met social needs by founding the Russian Immigrants' Home and an orphanage in New York City.

In 1907, the year of his arrival, the Parish of Saints Peter and Paul had been founded formally in Montréal, Québec, Canada.

In 1909, Saint George’s Greek Orthodox Church was founded in Toronto, Ontario, in Canada.

In 1910, Archimandrite Sebastian (Dabovich) left the Serbian mission. After he had done some other work, he taught at the Saint Platon Seminary in Tenafly, New Jersey. Then, in 1914, he had felt a strong call to go to serve in Serbia, and he received the blessing to do so. Thus, he departed for Serbia in Yugoslavia.

An effort was made to extend the overarching plan to include the Greeks in North America in a similar manner to the Syro-Arabians and others. In 1912, Father Michael Andreades (a priest of Greek extraction and Dean of the West Coast parishes of the Russian Missionary Archdiocese) was sent to Constantinople (Istanbul) in order to make a request that the Ecumenical Patriarch send a Greek bishop to North America. It was the intention that he serve as head of the Greek-American parishes, and to be within the Mission Archdiocese. Despite the hope in this overture, nothing came of it.

In 1912, Bishop Platon transferred the Seminary from Minneapolis, Minnesota to Tenafly, New Jersey (across the Hudson River from Manhattan) in order to bring it nearer to its main source of students, the eastern USA, and to the Central Administration of the Church.

Archbishop Platon (Rozhdestvensky) served as Archbishop of the North American Church until 1914, when he was recalled to Russia to serve as a bishop there.

Archbishop Evdokim (Meschersky), 1914 ; World War I (1914-1918)

Archbishop Platon (Rozhdestvensky) was succeeded by Archbishop Evdokim (Meschersky) , in 1914. However, because of the commencement of World War I in Europe, his arrival was delayed for many months.

Archbishop Evdokim (Meschersky)

Vladyka Evdokim arrived in New York City in 1915, and immediately he became involved in the life of the North American diocese. In line with the vision that Saint Tikhon had expressed in 1905, Archbishop Evdokim strove to organise and link the Church life of the various national groups within the vast diocese.

In 1917, Vladyka Evdokim saw to the ordination to the Holy Episcopate of Archimandrite Aftimios (Ofiesh) to be the successor to Bishop Raphael (Hawaweeny) (who had reposed in 1915) in order to be able to lead the Syro-Arab community.

Vladyka Evdokim actively re-organised many of the institutions of the North American Church, including transferring the Brooklyn orphanage to the first women’s monastery in Springfield, Vermont, and re-opening the orphanage site in Brooklyn as an Orthodox Women’s College in 1915.

Archbishop Evdokim took an active interest in Saint Platon’s Seminary in Tenafly, New Jersey.

Archbishop Evdokim understood the social problems of the day, and he quickly comprehended the pluralistic American way of life, and the unique situation of the Orthodox mission in North America. He wrote about this comprehension in his 1916 report to the Most Holy Synod in Russia. He commented that he found that the existing administrative structure of the mission was not adequate. He reiterated Saint Tikhon’s recommendations, in the context of the obvious need, for a wider autonomy for the Church in America that consisted of many national backgrounds. He also pointed out the many programmes of the mission and the financial needs of that mission. In an essay, “Religious Life in America”, published by the Holy Trinity-Saint Sergius Press, he pointed out the mistaken impressions of the Russian people that North Americans were indifferent to religion. He also noted that financing of religion in America was not provided through government institutions, but by the people.

Father Leonid Turkevich (1876-1965), the future Metropolitan Leonty, rector of the Seminary in Minneapolis and then in Tenafly, became the Dean of Saint Nicholas Cathedral in New York City. He wrote many articles during this period about the destiny of the American missionary archdiocese to become a self-governing Orthodox Church. Along with Archbishop Evdokim and Father Alexander Kukulevsky, he represented the American diocese at the Great Russian Church Council (Sobor) of 1917-1918.

In further efforts to extend Archbishop Tikhon’s original plan, in 1916 the former Byzantine-rite Catholic priest Father Alexander Dzubay (1857-1933) was ordained to the Holy Episcopate as Bishop Stephen of Pittsburgh, with special responsibility for bringing the Carpatho-Rusyns who were still Byzantine-rite Catholics (Uniates) into the Orthodox Church. Unfortunately, this mission was unsuccessful, and in disappointment Bishop Stephen returned to his Uniat roots in 1924.

By the end of 1917, the Diocese of the Aleutians and North America comprised 31 deaneries with 271 churches, 51 chapels, 257 clergy, and up to 300,000 parishioners.

Revolutions in Russia, 1917

In February, 1917, there arose the first of 2 revolutions in that year in the Russian Empire. Although this revolution brought the abdication of Tsar Nicholas II (Romanov), it did not carry the intention of a complete change in government. However, the fact that Word War I was still in progress contributed greatly to the instability that surrounded this revolution, as did certain foreign influences.

In October, 1917, the second, or “Bolshevik Revolution” took place. As a consequence of this second, communist revolution, the Russian Missionary Archdiocese in America was thrown into confusion.

All-Russia Sobor (Council) in Moscow, 1917-1918

The All-Russia Sobor of 1917-1918 had been being prepared long before any possibility of revolution, and it was determined that despite the unrest that followed the first revolution, the assembly must take place. Because of this revolution, this was the first time since the "reforms" of Tsar Peter I that the Church was free to act on her own without the considerable interference and control that had been exerted by the imperial "ober-prokurator" and similar authorities. It was perceived to be particularly important that the Church be freed from the anomaly of the phenomenon of government by the "Most Holy Synod", that the patriarchate be restored, and that the government of the Church return to the normal format of a patriarch who leads the Church in consultation with the Holy Synod of Bishops.

Vladyka Platon (Rozhdestvensky) was a participant of the Sacred Council of 1917-1918 in Moscow. He concelebrated the Divine Liturgy at the opening of the Council on 15 August in Moscow. At this Council, he was elected to serve as the Chairman of the Department of External and Internal Missions, and to serve as a member of several other departments.

There was a substantial representation from the Diocese of the Aleutians and North America, including Archbishop Evdokim (Meschersky).

Archbishop Alexander (Nemolovsky), 1917, 1919

Archbishop Alexander (Nemolovsky) had already served as the Temporary Administrator of the North American Diocese in 1914-1915, when Archbishop Evdokim's arrival had been delayed, and again in 1917-1919, during the All-Russian Council in Moscow.

Archbishop Alexander (Nemolovsky)

Archbishop Alexander (Nemolovsky) had already been in North America and serving as both priest and bishop since 1902, and he was well-acquainted with the life of the Missionary Diocese.

As the Bishop of Sitka and Alaska since 1909, Vladyka Alexander had made thorough archpastoral visits to the many communities (most of them quite isolate) in his diocese. He also kept the whole diocese informed about the life and activities in his diocese through his articles published in the "Russian American Orthodox Messenger".

The consequences of World War I affected not only communications between New York and Saint Petersburg, but also the situation of all the Orthodox in North America. Many young men, first of the parishes in Canada, and then of the parishes in the USA, went away to serve in the armed forces abroad, and many of them never returned.

Bishop Alexander visited Winnipeg, Manitoba, and other places in Canada for the first time in October, 1915, with the blessing of the newly-assigned Archbishop Evdokim (Meschersky). As a result of his visit and his communication with the clerics, a message of greeting was published in the pages of the "Russian People" newspaper (published in Winnipeg in 1914-1919). The message was drafted on 27 October, 1915. It was entitled : "To the God-protected, in Christ beloved fellow-pastors of Canadian Orthodox Russia - brotherly greetings of peace and love".

In 1915, the parish of Holy Ascension at Hubbard-Goodeve, Saskatchewan was founded.

Assignment to Winnipeg : first bishop resident in Canada, 1916

The Most Holy Synod in Petrograd (the Russified name of Saint Petersburg, adjusted at the beginning of the war) received a report from Archbishop Evdokim (Meschersky) about the desirability of the formation of another vicariate diocese, this one in Canada. Therefore, on 6/19 July, 1916, by a decision of the Most Holy Synod, Bishop Alexander (Nemolovsky) was released from his responsibilities in Alaska, and he was assigned to serve as the Vicar-Bishop of Winnipeg, Manitoba, and the Diocese of Canada.

This decree and act officially established the Diocese of Canada. The previous missionary territory became a missionary diocese within the Archdiocese of North America and the Aleutians.

On 19 August, 1916, in Saint Nicholas' Cathedral in New York City, Archimandrite Philip (Stavitsky) was ordained to the Holy Episcopate in order to succeed Bishop Alexander (Nemolovsky) as Bishop of Alaska. Archbishop Evdokim (Meschersky), Bishop Alexander (Nemolovsky), and Metropolitan German of Selevkinsky officiated at the ordination. As a hieromonk and archimandrite, he had been a successful anti-sectarian missionary in the Chernigov (1910) and Kiev dioceses (1911), and he had taught at Saint Platon's Orthodox Theological Seminary in Tenafly, New Jersey (1915).

Bishop Alexander's vicariate cathedral was established in Holy Trinity Church in Winnipeg. There, his efforts were impaired by the activity of Protestant activists (particularly Presbyterians).

By 1916, there were more than 60 Temples in Canada, and about 20 priests.

In 1916, the following communities were founded : Holy Transfiguration Church at London, Ontario ; Saint Petro Mohyla Institute at Saskatoon, Saskatchewan ; Saint Michael the Archangel Church at Kotzman-Smoky Lake, Alberta.

In late 1916, Archbishop Evdokim (Meschersky) assigned Archimandrite Adam (Philipovsky) to help Bishop Alexander of Canada as Dean of the Orthodox parishes in Canada. Although he was indeed a help in many ways, his personality also generated certain difficulties which would persist over many years.

In 1917, the following communities were founded : Saint Nicholas at Desjarlais, Alberta ; Saints Peter and Paul at Kaleland, Alberta ; Saint Demetrios at Winnipeg, Manitoba.

In 1918, the following communities were founded : Holy Trinity Bukowinian Church at Ottawa, Ontario ; Saint John Ukrainian Orthodox Institute at Edmonton, Alberta ; Holy Trinity Greek Orthodox Church at Fort William/Port Arthur (now Thunder Bay, Ontario ; Saint Michael at Winnipeg, Manitoba.

Return to the USA, continuing with the Canadian responsibility, 1917

In 1917, Bishop Alexander (Nemolovsky) was again called to the USA, to be the Temporary Administrator of the North American and Aleutian Diocese when Archbishop Evdokim (Meschersky) departed for Russia in order to participate in the All-Russian Sobor. Bishop Alexander left Archimandrite Adam (Philipovsky) to administer the Canadian diocese from Winnipeg, and he assigned him to be the rector of Holy Trinity Cathedral there.

Archbishop Alexander (Nemolovsky) was having great difficulty in helping the Archdiocese to adjust to the new conditions, especially the sudden and unanticipated loss of all financial support from the Russian Church and State. His personal talents did not match the dire need of the time, and he was aware of this. Those who advised him were also very much at a loss to find the ways and means adequate to the catastrophic situation.

It was then announced that Archbishop Evdokim (Meschersky) would not be returning to the USA. Because the American diocese especially needed stable leadership at this time (as did the whole Russian Church), and because relations with Russia had become effectively broken, it was decided to convene a diocesan assembly.

Second All-American Sobor, 1919

On 25-28 February, 1919, the Second All-American Sobor was convened in Cleveland, Ohio. The previous sobor had been held in Pennsylvania 12 years earlier, in 1907.

At this second sobor, Archimandrite Theophan ("Fan") (Noli) (1882-1965) was elected to become the bishop of the Albanian parishes in America, and Archimandrite Mardary (Uskokovich) (1889–1935) was elected to become the bishop of the Serbian parishes. However, with the Church in Russia in being turmoil in the midst of the Bolshevik Revolution and the ensuing civil war, official ecclesiastical approval for these 2 episcopal ordinations never arrived.

At this same sobor, Bishop Alexander (Nemolovsky) was almost unanimously elected to become the next bishop of the North American diocese.

Bishop Alexander (Nemolvosky) was immediately elevated to the dignity of archbishop.

Following this first election of its own ruling hierarch by the North American Church, the Second Sobor established administrative structures for the diocese, took measures to alleviate the financial crisis and also deliberated several issues related to the multi-ethnic composition of the diocese.

This sobor also discussed positively the possibility of forming a ‘mission’ for Ukrainian immigrants, similar to that of the Serbs and the Albanians. However, the Archbishop at that time, Archbishop Alexander (Nemolovsky), did not encourage further development of this idea.

Thus, it was the plan to develop a unified hierarchy that would serve the pastoral needs of all the various ethnic immigrant groups in North America. Already in 1905, however, a “Hellenic Eastern Orthodox Church” was incorporated in the State of New York completely independent of the Russian Orthodox hierarchy in America.

This was done even though at the time there was no Greek bishop in the country and no plans for a specifically Greek-American diocese — although by 1906, there were already 29 Greek-speaking parishes in North America. This inconsistency may have had something to do with the situation abroad more than the situation on the North American Continent and the missionary diocese. There were at that time disagreements between the Church of Greece and the Church of Constantinople about which of them might be responsible for Greek-speaking emigrants to North America.

Evidence of this may be discerned in the biographies of Archbishop Alexander (Demoglou) and Patriarch Athenagoras (Spyrou). There were also political elements influencing the situation at the time, in the aftermath of World War I, the Balkan Wars, the revolution in Russia, the Great Population Exchange of 1923, and the overthrow of the Greek monarchy in 1924.

When Archbishop Platon (Rozhdestvensky) returned to North America in 1922, Archbishop Alexander asked him to take over as head of the Administration of the Russian Archdiocese in North America. Vladyka Alexander then left North America for Europe later in 1922.

Metropolitan Platon (Rozhdestvensky, 1922

Archbishop Alexander (Nemolovsky) was succeeded unofficially by Archbishop Platon (Rozhdestvensky) in November, 1922.

Official succession required more formal steps, steps which were difficult to organise not only because of the lack of funds, but also because of the developing turmoil associated with the “Living Church” or “Renovated Church”.

Metropolitan Platon (Rozhdestvensky)

Metropolitan Platon had been serving in Odessa in the Russian Empire, until the Bolshevik Revolution and the Civil War. After the defeat of the White Army by the Bolsheviks in 1922, he was forced to leave Odessa for Europe. In his case, he arrived in Athens, Greece. There, he took the position as the Rector of the Russian Embassy Temple, the Temple of the Metamorphosis (Kottakis) for a time.

Meanwhile, in Europe, the question arose about sending an auditor to investigate the disorder in the Aleutian and North American Diocese. Archbishop Evlogy (Georgievsky) (to whom Patriarch Tikhon (Belavin) had initially offered this mission) put forward the name of Metropolitan Platon instead of himself. He noted that Metropolitan Platon already knew the American situation well because of his personal experience. By a decision of 11 January, 1921, the Higher Church Administration of the Russian Orthodox Church Outside Russia gave Metropolitan Platon a 4-month leave with the authority to arrange American Church affairs.

This selection was later confirmed by the Russian Orthodox Church on 27 April, 1922.

In 1922, when Metropolitan Platon (Rozhdestvensky) was returned from Europe (this time, in fact, as a refugee) to serve in the USA a second time, he found the diocese to be impoverished. It had been deprived of all missionary funds from the ecclesiastical missionary societies of the Russian Empire, and the local income was now very meagre. He returned to find considerable confusion within the flock, because the revolution had caused so many sudden and unexpected changes. There were also many refugees, and with them came many strongly differing political opinions. In the context of the chaos that spread everywhere after the revolution, and of the catastrophic loss of financial support, Archbishop Platon had to draw deeply from all his previous formative experience in order to cope with this situation.

Third All-American Sobor, 1922

At the Third All-American Sobor of the American archdiocese, held in Pittsburgh, Pennsylvania, on 7-9 November, 1922, Archbishop Platon was accepted to lead the Church once again.

At the time of this election, he was given the title “Metropolitan of All America and Canada.”

However, although Patriarch Tikhon himself had suggested this change in ecclesiastical leadership in America, several factions disputed Metropolitan Platon’s position as ruling hierarch of the diocese. 

Regardless, the election by the Third Sobor was finally approved on 29 September, 1923, by Patriarch Tikhon (Belavin), along with his simultaneous release from the administration of the Kherson and Odessa dioceses. Responses from the patriarchate were sometimes slow because of the persecution of the Church in the Soviet Union.

This Sobor serves as an example of how the North American Church tries to overcome crucial challenges in a conciliar manner. At this Sobor, the practice of electing the primate of the Church by the All-American Council was firmly established.

John Kedrovsky, a former priest who had served in the Russian-American Mission, who was suspended in 1918 for attempting to subvert the authority of Archbishop Alexander (Nemolovsky), returned to America from Russia in 1923 as a “bishop” of the Soviet-mandated and manipulated “Living Church”. He demanded, and received by legal action, possession of several Russian Church properties, including the principal Temple of the archdiocese, Saint Nicholas Cathedral in New York City. His actions brought further confusion, turmoil, and financial woes to the archdiocese.

The Church suffered another major blow at this time when it was considered necessary to close the seminary in Tenafly, New Jersey, in 1924; its properties and library were sold. There would be no Orthodox seminary in North America for the next 14 years.

Then, on 16 January, 1924, Patriarch Tikhon (Belavin) of Moscow (the former Archbishop of North America) issued a decree (published in newspapers) in which he removed Metropolitan Platon (Rozhdestvensky) from his responsibility as primate in North America for “public acts of counter-revolution directed against the Soviet state”. Of course, this decree was not obeyed, because it was understood that Patriarch Tikhon was under extreme pressure from the Soviet government, and that in fact he had been compelled by the atheistic authorities to issue that decree. However, this decree prompted another general assembly of the North American Church.

Fourth All-American Sobor, 1924

On 2-4 April, 1924, the Fourth All-American Sobor of the Russian-American Archdiocese was held in Detroit, Michigan.  

Metropolitan Platon stayed away from the opening session, which in part dealt with his own position. At that session, his election at the previous sobor was resoundingly reconfirmed.  Because of his competence as a leader, his primacy was deemed to be essential for the Church’s survival.

The council also requested Metropolitan Platon to draft a governing statute (that is, a constitution) for the North American Church, based on the Statute adopted by the Moscow Council of 1917-1918. This sobor, on the basis of Patriarch Tikhon’s decree of 20 November, 1920 (no. 362) — which declared that all dioceses of the Russian Church cut off from the Moscow Patriarchate should govern themselves and carry on their church life under local supervision — declared that the archdiocese would be a self-governing metropolitanate, which would maintain only a spiritual bond with the Church in Russia, until such time as normal relations could be resumed with the Russian Church.

The sobor issued a strong statement against the former Priest John Kedrovsky and the “Living Church” with particular attention to safeguarding the canonical Church’s property rights against spurious claims by schismatics in civil courts.

Archbishop Platon was officially installed as the metropolitan, with the title "Metropolitan of All America and Canada", in February, 1924. The Church was legally incorporated as the "Russian Orthodox Greek Catholic Church of America".

In all, the leadership and the membership of the Church in North America was conscientiously attempting to live in accordance with the plan (or "vision") presented by Patriarch Tikhon when he had been the bishop of the diocese in 1905.

"Russian Orthodox Greek Catholic Church in North America" : "The Metropolia", 1924

By this time, the period of the "Russian Mission" had come effectively to an end, and the Archdiocese of the Aleutians and North America had been transformed into a Metropolitanate of All America and Canada. Thereafter, it came to be called “The Metropolia” for short.

With this, a temporary autonomy was proclaimed until the next All-Russian Council would be convened.

There now began the process which would result in the official and legal establishment of the autonomous "Russian Orthodox Greek Catholic Church of North America". During the following decades, there would be repeated and continual attempts by the Bishops, Priests, Deacons, Monastics and Faithful of the Church to maintain and to increase what had been given through all the prayers, suffering and efforts of the founders, developers and benefactors of the Russian Orthodox Diocese of the Aleutians and North America.

References

Kan, Sergei, "Memory Eternal : Tlingit Culture and Russian Orthodox Christianity Through Two Centuries" (Seattle and London : University of Washington Preess, 1999.

Oleksa, Michael, "Alaskan Missionary Spirituality" (Crestwood, NY: St Vladimir’s Seminary Press, 2010).

……“Orthodox Alaska” (Crestwood, NY: St Vladimir’s Seminary Press, 1992). ISBN : 0-88141-092-6.

Tarasar, Constance J, ed., "Orthodox America 1794-1976 : Development of The Orthodox Church in America" (Syosset, NY : The Orthodox Church in America Department of History and Archives, 1975). ASIN : B000ZLZAUE.

The Orthodox Faith Volume III - Church History by the Protopresbyter Thomas Hopko with David C Ford.

“A History and Introduction of the Orthodox Church in America” by the Archpriest John Matusiak

“Orthodox Christians in North America (1794-1994)” by by Mark Stokoe and the Archpriest Leonid Kishkovsky (Chapters 1 & 2).

“Orthodoxy in America, Part One: From the Russian Mission to the OCA”

Additional information

(Afonsky), Bishop Gregory, "History of the Orthodox Church in Alaska, 1774-1914" (Kodiak, AK: St Herman’s Seminary, 1977).

Archdiocese of Canada – Orthodox Church in America, “The Orthodox Church in Canada : A Chronology” (Ottawa : Archdiocese of Canada, 1988). [1890-1988]

Chapman, Nicholas, “Orthodoxy in America – an interconnected and shared History”

Gray, George & Bear, Jan, eds., “Portraits of American Saints” (Los Angeles : OCA Diocese of the West, 1994). ASIN : B000JC5QDK.

Kan, Sergei, `Memory Eternal: Tlingit Culture and Russian Orthodox Christianity Through Two Centuries`(Seattle and London : University of Washington Press, 1999). ISBN : 978-0-295-97806-2.

…… 'Russian Orthodox Brotherhoods among the Tlingit' in "Ethnohistory" 32 (1985) PP. 196-253.

Pierce, Richard, "The Russian Orthodox Religious Mission in America, 1794-1837" (Kingston, ON: The Limestone Press, 1978).

Prokurat, Michael ; Golitzin, Alexander & Petersen, Michael, eds., “The A to Z of the Orthodox Church” (Lanham, MD : Scarecrow Press, 2010), pp. 131-132. ISBN : 978-0-8108-7602-6.

'Orthodox Church in California from 1806 until 1840' by Fr. Sebastian Dabovich in "Amerikanskii Pravoslavnii Vestnik", no. 15 (1-13 April, 1898, pp. 455-460), no. 16 (15-27 April, 1898), pp. 479-482 (Translated from Russian by Robert A. Parent)

The most famous Russians in Alaska Russian Wikipedia biography of Bishop Peter (Ekaterinovsky)

Report by the Priest Nikolai Kovrigin to Bishop Paul (Popov)

Russian Wikipedia biography of Bishop Paul (Popov)

Russian Wikipedia biography of Bishop Nestor (Zakkis) (or “Zass”)

OrthodoxWiki biography of Bishop Nestor (Zakkis) (or “Zass”).

Russian Wikipedia biography of Bishop John (Mitropolsky)

Russian Biographical Dictionary, 1914, entry for Bishop Nestor (Sass)

Orthodox Encyclopaedia biography of Bishop John (Mitropolsky)

Bishop Vladimir (Sokolovsky-Avtonomov)

Bishop Nicholas (Ziorov)

Hieromonk Seraphim (Samoilovich)

Archbishop Tikhon (Belavin)

Metropolitan Platon (Rozhdestvensky)

Archbishop Evdokim (Meschersky)

Archbishop Alexander (Nemolovsky)

Russian Wikipedia biography of John Kedrovsky

Wikipedia article about the Crimean War

Encyclopaedia Britannica article about the Crimean War

Wikipedia article about the Alaska purchase by the USA

"The Struggle - Alaska Native Knowledge Network" by Peter Metcalfe (about Tlingit missions)

Sitka brochure

Orthodox History article : "The extent of the Russian diocese in the 19th century" by Matthew Namee

Orthodoxhistory.org article about New Smyrna plantation, Florida

Wikipedia article about the New Smyrna plantation

Wikipedia article about the history of Virginia, reference to the colonial period

Cleveland University article about Balkan immigrants

History of Saint Tikhon's Monastery

Drevo Encyclopaedia article : "From Ancient Valaam to the New World : Russian Orthodox Mission in North America"

Russian Orthodox Church in Alaska

Orthodoxwiki article about the Church of Russia

Bishops of Yakutia

Orthodoxwiki article about The Orthodox Church in America

Bishops of Yakutia on the private site of Victor Skripin

A lecture about the history of the monastery (with visible memorabilia), particularly with reference to the annual Memorial Day Pilgrimage. Father John Perich is the curator of the Metropolitan Museum at Saint Tikhon's Monastery, and a member of the Department of History and Archives of the Orthodox Church in America.

‘Thousands are Baptised as Valaam Monks begin their Mission in Alaska’ in “Canadian Orthodox Messenger” (Winter, 1992/1993). Supplement between pp. 4-5.

‘Monk Herman, Archimandrite Ioasaph Tell of Struggles, Joys in Missionary Labours’ in “Canadian Orthodox Messenger” (Spring, 1993), Supplement between pp. 4-5.

‘St Herman's Later Life : an Eye-witness Account’ in “Canadian Orthodox Messenger” (Summer, 1993), Supplement between pp. 6-7.